DNAfragmentation is the separation or breaking of DNA strands into pieces. It can be intentional by laboratory personnel or the cells, or it can be spontaneous. Intentional Restriction digest is the intentional laboratory breaking of DNA strands. Apoptotic DNAfragmentation is a natural fragmentation that cells perform in apoptosis programmed cell death Spontaneous Spontaneous or accidental DNAfragmentation is fragmentation that gradually accumulates in a cell. It can be measured by e.g. Comet assay . The degree of DNAfragmentation can predict outcomes for in vitro fertilization ref cite journal author Simon L, Brunborg G, Stevenson M, Lutton D, McManus J, Lewis SE title Clinical significance of sperm DNA damage in assisted reproduction outcome journal Hum Reprod volume 25 issue 7 pages 1594 1608 year 2010 month May pmid 20447937 doi 10.1093 humrep deq103 url ref IVF and its expansion intracytoplasmic sperm injection ref name speyer ICSI . The sperm chromatin dispersion test SCD and TUNEL assay are both effective in detecting sperm DNA damage. ref name Zhang cite journal author Zhang LH, Qiu Y, Wang KH, Wang Q, Tao G, Wang LG title Measurement of sperm DNAfragmentation using bright field microscopy comparison between sperm chromatin dispersion test and terminal uridine nick end labeling assay journal Fertil. Steril. volume 94 issue 3 pages 1027 1032 year 2009 month June pmid 19505686 doi 10.1016 j.fertnstert.2009.04.034 url ref Using bright field microscopy , the SCD test appears to be more sensitive than the TUNEL assay. ref name Zhang Its main units of measurement is DNAfragmentation index DFI . ref name speyer cite journal author Speyer BE, Pizzey AR, Ranieri M, Joshi R, Delhanty JD, Serhal P title Fall in implantation rates following ICSI with sperm with high DNAfragmentation journal Hum Reprod volume 25 issue 7 pages 1609 1618 year 2010 month May pmid 20495207 ... ICSI. ref name speyer References reflist Category DNA medicine stub ... more details
not show DNAfragmentation during apoptosis, although they do exhibit some other features of apoptosis and die. DNAfragmentation is a secondary consequence, rather than an integral cause, of apoptosis. Endonuclease involved might be similar to DNAse I, a potential indication that the DNAfragmentation ... date February 2012 There are many methods to assess the DNAfragmentation caused by apoptosis and also ... Detection of DNAfragmentation in apoptosis application of in situ nick translation to cell culture ... 1997 month July title Major DNAfragmentation is a late event in apoptosis journal Journal of Histochemistry ..., resembling the rungs of a ladder thumb right upright Apoptotic DNAfragmentation, visualised ... and Scientific control control DNA right are included for comparison. Apoptotic DNAfragmentation is a key ... etc. . This effect can be used to detect apoptosis, for example via the DNA laddering assay, ref name ... nprot.2006.238 ref Mechanism The enzyme responsible for apoptotic DNAfragmentation is the caspase ... around a histone tetramer coloured . In apoptotic DNAfragmentation, the DNA is cleaved in the internucleosomal ... those of nuclear morphology. Even so, the detection of DNAfragmentation and the presence ..., the interpretation of these in situ assays of DNAfragmentation in situ nick translation ISNT ... and in the nucleus to the biochemical degradation of DNA in the same cells. Apoptosis can be initiated ... The discovery of the internucleosomal fragmentation of genomic DNA to regular repeating oligonucleosomal ... internucleosomal fragmentation of irradiated lymphoid chromatin DNA in vivo . ref cite journal ... of DNA during apoptotic cell death as a hallmark of apoptosis. Since 1972 Smallcaps Kerr ... internucleosomal cleavage pattern of DNA degradation occurred during apoptosis. ref cite journal .... ref Thus, the first link between programmed cell death apoptosis and internucleosomal fragmentation of chromatin DNA was discovered and soon became as a specific feature of apoptosis. In 1980, Smallcaps ... more details
fragmentation, chromatin condensation , and chromosome chromosomal DNAfragmentation. See also apoptotic DNAfragmentation . In contrast to necrosis , which is a form of traumatic cell death that results from acute cellular injury, apoptosis, in general, confers advantages during an organism s life ... to the degradation of DNA. ref name nuclearfrag cite journal author Nagata S title Apoptotic DNAfragmentation ... electrophoresis . Tests for DNA laddering differentiate apoptosis from Ischemia ischemic or toxic ... , it can be observed that OROV causes DNAfragmentation in HeLa cells. It can be interpreted by counting ...Infobox Anatomy Name Apoptosis Latin GraySubject GrayPage Image Hypertrophic Zone of Epiphyseal Plate.jpg Caption Apoptosis increasing from normal cells top to apoptotic ones bottom . Image2 Caption2 Width 306 System Precursor MeshName MeshNumber DorlandsPre DorlandsSuf Apoptosis IPAc en icon p ... About Apoptosis quote Apoptosis Interest Group, preferred pronunciation of National Institute of Health ..., apoptosis produces cell fragments called apoptotic bodies that phagocytic cells are able to engulf ... of the Cell textbook edition 5th publisher Garland Science page 1115 chapter Chapter 18 Apoptosis ... and 70 1,000,000,000 number billion cells die each day due to apoptosis in the average human adult ... a day. ref cite book last Karam first Jose A. title Apoptosis in Carcinogenesis and Chemotherapy year 2009 publisher Springer location Netherlands isbn 978 1 4020 9597 9 ref Research in and around apoptosis .... Excessive apoptosis causes atrophy , whereas an insufficient amount results in uncontrolled cell proliferation, such as cancer . Discovery and etymology Main History and highlights in apoptosis research German scientist Carl Vogt was first to describe the principle of apoptosis in 1842. In 1885 ... microscopy, John Foxton Ross Kerr at University of Queensland was able to distinguish apoptosis ... AH, Currie AR title Apoptosis a basic biological phenomenon with wide ranging implications in tissue ... more details
TOCright wiktionary fragmentation fragmented Fragmentation and similar may refer to In biology Fragmentation reproduction , a form of asexual reproduction Fragmentation cell biology Habitat fragmentation Population fragmentation Music Fragmented album , the debut album from the Filipino independent band Up Dharma Down Other Fragmentation chemistry , a technique to study structure of molecules Fragmentation computer a phenomenon of computer storage Fragmentation economics , a process of globalisation Fragmentation music , a compositional technique Fragmentation sociology , a term used in urban sociology Fragmentation weaponry , a feature of explosive weaponry File system fragmentation Feudal fragmentation IP fragmentation , a process in computer networking a synonym for hadronization with regard to quark s In waste management, breaking up waste materials see Waste management Fragmentation blasting , the quantification by photoanalysis of blasted material See also Divergence Fragment disambiguation Separation disambig bg cs Fragmentace de Fragmentierung fr Fragmentation id Fragmentasi he pl Fragmentacja simple Fragmentation sk Fragment cia uk ... more details
Unreferenced date March 2007 The Inhibitors of Apoptosis IAP are a family of functionally and structurally related proteins, which serve as endogenous inhibitors of programmed cell death apoptosis . A common feature of all IAPs is the presence of a inhibitor of apoptosis domain BIR Baculovirus IAP Repeat, a 70 amino acid domain in one to three copies. The human IAP family consists 8 members, and IAP homologs have been identified in numerous organisms. The first members of the IAPs identified were from the baculovirus IAPs, Cp IAP and Op IAP, which bind to and inhibit caspases as a mechanism that contributes to its efficient infection and replication cycle in the host. Later, five more human IAPs were discovered which included XIAP , BIRC2 c IAPl , Baculoviral IAP repeat containing protein 3 C IAP2 , NAIP gene NAIP , and survivin . The best characterized IAP is XIAP , which binds caspase 9 , caspase 3 and caspase 7 , thereby inhibiting their activation and preventing apoptosis . Also cIAP1 and cIAP2 have been shown to bind caspases, although how the IAPs inhibit apoptosis mechanistically at the molecular level is not completely understood. Activity of XIAP is blocked by binding to Diablo homolog DIABLO Smac and HtrA serine peptidase 2 HTRA2 Omi proteins released from mitochondria after pro apoptic stimuli. See also Inhibitor of apoptosis domain XIAP BIRC2 cIAP1 BIRC3 cIAP2 survivin External links The MEROPS online database for peptidases and their inhibitors http merops.sanger.ac.uk cgi bin merops.cgi?id I32.002 I32.002 MeshName Inhibitor of Apoptosis Proteins Apoptosis signaling pathway DEFAULTSORT Inhibitor Of Apoptosis Category Cell biology de Apoptose Inhibitor vi Ch t c ch ch t r ng t b o ... more details
orphan date April 2010 Apoptosis is a programmed form of cell death involving the degradation of cellular constituents by a group of cysteine proteases called caspase s. The caspases can be activated through either the intrinsic mitochondrial mediated or extrinsic death receptor mediated apoptotic pathways. The intrinsic apoptotic pathway is characterized by permeabilisation of the mitochondria and release of cytochrome c into the cytoplasm . Cytochrome c then forms a multi protein complex known as the apoptosome and initiates activation of the caspase cascade through caspase 9. The extrinsic apoptotic pathway is activated by death receptors on the plasma membrane such as tumour necrosis factor receptor 1 TNFR1 and Fas CD95 . As ligand s bind to these receptors, the death inducing signaling complex DISC is formed leading to initiation of the caspase cascade through caspase 8. References Danial, N.N., and Korsmeyer, S.J. 2004 . Cell death critical control points. Cell 116, 205 219. Kroemer, G., Galluzzi, L., and Brenner, C. 2007 . Mitochondrial membrane permeabilization in cell death. Physiol Rev 87, 99 163. Taylor, R.C., Cullen, S.P., and Martin, S.J. 2008 . Apoptosis controlled demolition at the cellular level. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 9, 231 241. Category Apoptosis ... more details
Fragmentation is a type of Dissociation chemistry chemical dissociation . Fragmentation of a molecule can take place by a process of heterolysis or homolysis . It is a phenomenon observed in mass spectrometry where it is used as a tool to find the structural formula of a molecule, process called structural elucidation . It can occur in the ion source in source fragmentation where it is generally not a desired effect. Ion source conformation is an important criterium in the level of fragmentation observed. Desired fragmentation is made in the collision zone post source fragmentation of a tandem mass spectrometry tandem mass spectrometer . It is a part of gas phase ion chemistry and there are different types of mass fragmentation collision induced dissociation CID , electron capture dissociation ECD , electron transfer dissociation ETD , negative electron transfer dissociation NETD , electron detachment dissociation EDD , photodissociation , particularly infrared multiphoton dissociation IRMPD and blackbody infrared radiative dissociation BIRD , surface induced dissociation SID , Higher energy C trap dissociation HCD , charge remote fragmentation . The certain structures favour fragmentation the Alpha cleavage cleavage and the McLafferty rearrangement are two examples for the often observed fragmentations. See also Mass chromatogram Mass spectrum analysis Tandem mass spectrometry External links http www.chemguide.co.uk analysis masspec fragment.html Fragmentation patterns in the mass spectra of organic compounds mass spectrometry Category Tandem mass spectrometry analytical chem stub ... more details
10.1111 j.1749 6632.2009.04681.x url ref Apoptosis inducing factor is involved in initiating a caspase independent pathway of apoptosis positive intrinsic regulator of apoptosis by causing DNAfragmentation ... Apoptosis Inducing Factor AIF is a protein that triggers chromatin condensation and DNA degradation ...protein Name AIFM1 apoptosis inducing factor, mitochondrion associated, 1 caption Crystallographic structure of the human apoptosis inducing factor rainbow color cartoon diagram, N terminus blue, C terminus ... S, Larochette N, Daugas E, Garrido C, Kroemer G, Wu H title DNA binding is required for the apoptogenic action of apoptosis inducing factor journal Nat. Struct. Biol. volume 9 issue 9 pages 680 4 year 2002 month September pmid 12198487 doi 10.1038 nsb836 url ref image apoptosis inducing factor.png ... UniProt O95831 PDB ECnumber Chromosome X Arm q Band 25 LocusSupplementaryData q26 Apoptosis inducing ... E, Hanada T, Modjtahedi N, Penninger JM, Kroemer G title AIF not just an apoptosis inducing factor ... the permeability of the mitochondrial membrane upon apoptosis. Normally it is found behind the outer ... in apoptosis. ref name pmid19723031 ref name pmid12022952 cite journal author Cand C, Cohen I, Daugas E, Ravagnan L, Larochette N, Zamzami N, Kroemer G title Apoptosis inducing factor ... triggering apoptosis starts when the mitochondria releases AIF, which exits through the mitochondrial ... the cell to condense its chromosomes and fragment its DNA molecules in order to prepare for cell death ... insult, and its DNA binding ability. AIF also plays a significant role in the mitochondrial .... As a result, decreased amounts of Scythe lead to a quicker fragmentation of AIF. The x linked inhibitor of apoptosis XIAP has the power to influence the half life of AIF along with Scythe. Together ... of AIF in the mitochondria. ref name pmid20138767 Isozymes Human genes encoding apoptosis inducing factor isozymes include AIFM1 AIFM2 AIFM3 See also Apoptosis References Reflist External links MeshName ... more details
The Internet Protocol IP implements datagram fragmentation , so that packets may be formed that can pass through a link with a smaller maximum transmission unit MTU than the original datagram size. RFC 791 describes the procedure for IP fragmentation, and transmission and reassembly of datagrams. ref RFC 791, Internet Protocol , Information Sciences Institute September 1981 ref RFC 815 describes a simplified reassembly algorithm. ref RFC 815, IP Datagram Reassembly Algorithms , David D. Clark July ... flags in the IP protocol header are used for fragmentation and reassembly of IP datagrams. In a case ... bytes must be deliverable without the need to use IPv6 fragmentation. If a receiving host receives ... Implications of NAT November 2000 ref IP fragmentation can cause excessive retransmissions ... A. Kent, Jeffrey C. Mogul url http www.cs.binghamton.edu nael classes cs528 fragment.pdf title Fragmentation ... the path MTU between two IP hosts, so that IP fragmentation can be avoided. IPv4 and IPv6 differences The details of the fragmentation mechanism, as well as the overall architectural approach to fragmentation, are different between IPv4, the first official version of the Internet Protocol, and IPv6, the newer version. In IPv4, routers perform fragmentation, whereas in IPv6, routers do not fragment ... formats are different for IPv4 and IPv6, analogous fields are used for fragmentation, so the algorithm can be reused for fragmentation and reassembly. In IPv4, hosts must make a best effort attempt ... for IPv4. See also IPv4 Fragmentation and reassembly IPv4 fragmentation and reassembly IPv6 packet Fragmentation IPv6 fragmentation IP fragmentation attacks References reflist External links http penguin.dcs.bbk.ac.uk academic networks network layer fragmentation index.php IP Fragmentation http www.tech faq.com packet fragmentation.shtml What is packet fragmentation? http www.nil.si ipcorner IP Fragmentation The Never Ending Story of IP Fragmentation DEFAULTSORT Ip Fragmentation Category Internet ... more details
A Grob fragmentation , named for the British chemist Cyril A. Grob , is an elimination reaction taking ... Grob fragmentation general.svg center 400px Scheme 1. Grob fragmentation align center Grob fragmentation History An early instance of fragmentation is the dehydration of di tert butyl carbinol yielding .... class wikitable align center File Grob fragmentation Whitmore 1933.svg center 400px Fragmentation Whitmore align center Fragmentation reaction Whitmore 1933 Albert Eschenmoser in 1952 investigated the base catalysed fragmentation of certain Aldol adduct beta hydroxy ketones ref cite DOI 10.1002 hlca.19520350532 ref class wikitable align center File Grob fragmentation Eschenmoser 1952.svg center 400px Fragmentation Eschenmoser 1952 align center Fragmentation reaction Eschenmoser 1952 The original ... by sodium metal. According to reviewers Prantz and Mulzer in 2010 the name Grob fragmentation ... cr900386h ref class wikitable align center File Grob fragmentation Grob 1955.svg center 200px Grob fragmentation 1955 align center Grob fragmentation 1955 Reaction mechanism The reaction mechanism varies with reactant and reaction conditions with the fragmentation taking place in a concerted reaction .... Scope An example of a Grob like fragmentation in organic synthesis is the expansion of the Wieland ... in THF to borane 5 only one substituent displayed for clarity . The Grob fragmentation to 6 ... boron byproduct is trimethyl borate ref class wikitable align center File Grob fragmentation applic Thapsigargin.svg center 400px Scheme 2. Grob like fragmentation align center Scheme 2. Grob like fragmentation in Thapsigargin synthesis Another example is an epoxy alcohol fragmentation reaction ... fragmentation has been applied in the synthesis of the fragrance muscenone scheme 3 ref cite DOI ... wikitable align center File Grob fragmentation Fehr 2010.svg center 400px Scheme 3. R,Z 5 Muscenone synthesis align center Scheme 3. R,Z 5 Muscenone synthesis See also Eschenmoser fragmentation Wharton ... more details
Image MK2 grenade DoD.jpg frame right 150px Grooved body of a Second World War era U.S. Mk 2 grenade . The grooves covering the exterior of the grenade cause it to break into many pieces upon explosion. citation needed date December 2010 clarify are the grooves not for grip? date December 2010 A fragmentation grenade commonly known as a frag is an anti personnel weapon that is designed to disperse Fragmentation weaponry shrapnel upon exploding. The body is made of hard plastic or steel. Flechettes , notched wire, ball bearings or the case itself provide the fragments. When the word grenade is used without specification, and context does not suggest otherwise, it is generally assumed to refer to a fragmentation grenade. These grenades were sometimes classed as defensive grenades because the effective casualty radius of some matched or exceeded the distance they could be thrown, thus necessitating them being thrown from behind cover. The Mills bomb or F1 grenade Russia F1 grenade are examples of defensive grenades where the 30 45 m casualty radius ref uk icon http armor.kiev.ua army hist f 1.shtml ref matched or exceeded the 30 m that a grenade could reasonably be thrown. An example of offensive use is that Soviet Army paratroopers during the Cold War were trained to throw fragmentation grenades from an altitude of about 100 m if the ground below them was held by enemy forces. Modern fragmentation grenades such as the United States M67 grenade have a wounding radius of 15 m half that of older style grenades, which can still be encountered and can be thrown about 40 m. Fragments may travel more than 200 m. ref Federation of American Scientists. http www.fas.org man dod 101 sys land m67.htm M67 FRAGMENTATION HAND GRENADE ref References references DEFAULTSORT Fragmentation Grenade Category Fragmentation grenades Fragmentation grenades nl Scherfhandgranaat pl Granat od amkowy fi Sirpalekranaatti ... more details
for file system fragmentation file fragmentation Multiple issues technical September 2010 copy edit November 2011 citation style April 2011 no footnotes April 2011 In computer storage , fragmentation is a phenomenon ... different but related forms of fragmentation external fragmentation, internal fragmentation, and data fragmentation. Various storage allocation schemes exhibit one or more of these weaknesses. Fragmentation can be accepted in return for increase in speed or simplicity. Memory fragmentation Basic ... to request large chunks of memory. Types of memory fragmentation Image fragmentation.jpg border width100px xheight70px center Memory fragmentation in a system Overhead The memory allocator ... of memory. Hence, it is considered as a part of memory fragmentation. Internal fragmentation When ... the last byte of the file and the first byte of the next cluster is a form of internal fragmentation ... significant bit of each byte is always zero. The unused bits are a form of internal fragmentation ... used. This contributes to the IPv4 address shortage . Unlike other types of fragmentation, internal fragmentation is difficult to reclaim usually the best way to remove it is with a design change. For example, in dynamic memory allocation , memory pool s drastically cut internal fragmentation by spreading the space overhead over a larger number of objects. External fragmentation External fragmentation is the inability to use free memory as the free memory is divided into small blocks ... this free block. External fragmentation also occurs in file systems as many files of different sizes ... than B s size. As compared to external fragmentation, overhead and internal fragmentation account for little loss in terms of wasted memory and reduced performance. External fragmentation does the most damage to the system. It is defined as big math External Memory Fragmentation 1 frac Largest Block Of Free Memory Total Free Memory math big External fragmentation is the factor between 0 to 1 ... more details
The Eschenmoser fragmentation , first published in 1967, is the chemical reaction of , epoxy ketone s 1 with aryl sulfonylhydrazines 2 to give alkyne s 3 and carbonyl compounds 4 . ref cite journal author A. Eschenmoser, D. Felix and G. Ohloff title Eine neuartige Fragmentierung cyclischer , unges ttigter Carbonylsysteme Synthese von Exalton und rac Muscon aus Cyclododecanon Vorl ufige Mitteilung year 1967 journal Helvetica Chimica Acta volume 50 issue 2 pages 708 713 doi 10.1002 hlca.19670500232 .... Crowe and Robert L. Dehn title A novel fragmentation reaction of , epoxyketones the synthesis of acetylenic ... musk s. Hence, the reaction is also known as Eschenmoser Ohloff fragmentation . In the same ..., and thus, some also refer to it as the Eschenmoser Tanabe fragmentation . Image Eschemoser Fragmentation Scheme.png center 450px The Eschenmoser fragmentation Several examples exist in the literature, ref OrgSynth title Fragmentation of &alpha &beta Epoxyketones to Acetylenic Aldehydes and Ketones Preparation of 2,3 Epoxycyclohexanone and its fragmentation to 5 Hexynal author Dorothee Felix ... scale. Reaction mechanism The mechanism of the Eschenmoser fragmentation begins with the condensation ... nitrogen to initiate the fragmentation, and thus the fragmentation is catalyzed by acid s or base ... . The proton transfer leads to intermediate 4 , which undergoes the key fragmentation to alkyne ... . Image Eschemoser Fragmentation Mechanism.png center 700px The reaction mechanism of the Eschenmoser fragmentation Besides this standard course, there is also a radical variant of this , enone alkynone fragmentation, which employs 1,2 dibromo 5,5 dimethylhydantoin DDH in sec butanol. ref cite ... 1979 volume 62 pages 2655 2660 doi 10.1002 hlca.19790620815 title A New ?,? Enone ? Alkynone Fragmentation ... substrates often leads to low yields of the classical Eschenmoser fragmentation. See also Grob fragmentation Wharton reaction Shapiro reaction References reflist Category Elimination reactions ... more details
Population fragmentation is a form of population segregation. ref Citation last Proctor first Michael F. last2 McLellan first2 Bruce N. lastauthoramp yes last3 Strobeck first3 Curtis year 2002 title Population Fragmentation of Grizzly Bears in Southeastern British Columbia, Canada journal Ursus volume 8 issue pages 153 160 doi jstor 3873196 . ref It is often caused by habitat fragmentation . Population fragmentation causes inbreeding depression , which leads to a decrease in genetic variability in the species involved. ref name ProctorMcLellan Citation last Proctor first M. F. last2 McLellan first2 B. N. last3 Strobeck first3 C. lastauthoramp yes last4 Barclay first4 R. M. R. year 2005 title Genetic analysis reveals demographic fragmentation of grizzly bears yielding vulnerably small populations journal Proceedings of the Royal Society B volume 272 issue 1579 pages 2409 2416 doi 10.1098 rspb.2005.3246 pmid 16243699 pmc 1559960 . ref This decreases the fitness of the population for several reasons. First, inbreeding forces competition with relatives, which decreases the evolutionary fitness of the species. ref name ProctorMcLellan Secondly, the decrease in genetic variability causes an increased possibility a lethal homozygous recessive trait may be expressed this decreases the average litter size reproduced, indirectly decreasing the population. ref name KrebsCJ Citation last Krebs first C. J. year 2009 title Ecology The Experimental Analysis of Distribution and Abundance edition 6th publisher Benjamin Cummings location San Francisco isbn 9780321507433 . ref References references Category Habitats Fragmentation Category Habitat ecology terminology Category Landscape ecology Category Extinction Category Conservation biology Category Conservation reliant species Category Ecological restoration Category Environmental conservation ... more details
Unreferenced date August 2008 In economics , fragmentation means organization of Production, costs, and pricing production in which different stages of production are divided among different suppliers that are located in different countries. Now products traded between firms in different countries are components instead of final products. Final products may be sold to outside the region in which fragmentation happens East Asia n countries often sell their final products to European Union Europe and the United States of America USA for example . Producers in less developed countries get positions of production chain that add less value to final product. Their challenge is to climb upwards on transnational production chain. Production chains are often vertical hierarchies in which big multinational companies may be those who sell final products and set production standards for lesser producers. This kind of fragmentation is an important part of contemporary globalization . References reflist Brakman, Gerritsen en Van Marwijk Category Production economics economics stub ... more details
unreferenced date September 2009 In urban sociology , fragmentation refers to the absence or the underdevelopment of connections between the society and the groupings of some members of that society on the lines of a common culture , nationality , Race classification of human beings race , language , occupation, religion , income level, or other common interests. This gap between the concerned group and the rest might be social, indicating poor interrelationships among each other economical based on Structural Inequality structural inequalities institutional in terms of formal and specific political, occupational, educative or associative organizations and or geographic implying regional or residential concentration. Category Sociological terms sociology stub fr Fragmentation urbaine ... more details
In music composition , fragmentation is the use of fragments or the division of a musical idea Musical gestures gesture , motif music motive , theme music theme , etc. into segmentation music segments . It is used in Tonality tonal and Atonality atonal music, and is a common method of localized musical development development and resolution music closure . Fragmentation is related to Arnold Schoenberg s concept of liquidation music liquidation , ref Schoenberg, Arnold. Fundamentals of Musical Composition . London, 1967. p. 58. ref a common musical technique compositional technique that describes the reduction of a large scale musical idea to its essential form such as a contour line, a specific harmonic motion, or the like . ref After Michael Friedmann, course lectures and materials for MUSI 305 Analysis and Composition of Twentieth Century Music, Yale College, Yale University, fall 2008. ref Liquidation informs much thematically driven music, such as that by B la Bart k ref Stein, Deborah. Engaging Music Essays in Music Analysis , Introduction to Musical Ambiguity . New York Oxford University Press, 2005. ISBN 0 19 517010 5. p. 87. ref , Stravinsky, and Schoenberg himself. It is important to understand that, though they are related, fragmentation and liquidation are separate processes and concepts. Further reading Caplin, William. Classical Form A Theory of Formal Functions , p. 10 11. References reflist Category Music theory music theory stub ... more details
Habitat fragmentation as the name implies, describes the emergence of discontinuities fragmentation in an organism s preferred environment Habitat ecology habitat , causing population fragmentation . Habitat fragmentation can be caused by geological processes that slowly alter the layout of the physical ... much faster and causes extinction s of many species. Image Grasp africa.jpg thumb right Fragmentation ... . Definition The term habitat fragmentation includes five discrete phenomena Reduction in the total ... record. ref name SahneyBentonFerry2010LinksDiversityVertebrates For example, habitat fragmentation ... SahneyBentonFerry2010LinksDiversityVertebrates Human causes Habitat fragmentation is frequently caused ..., resulting in extreme habitat fragmentation. Implications One of the major ways that habitat fragmentation ..., boreal forests, oceans, marshlands, etc. for all organisms in an ecological niche. Habitat fragmentation .... Thus fragmentation of habitat is an important cause of species extinction. ref name Rosenzweig Population ... to habitat fragmentation url journal Biology Letters Biol. Lett. volume 1 issue 1 pages 13 6 ref Additionally, habitat fragmentation leads to edge effect s. Microclimactic changes in light, temperature ... implications Habitat fragmentation is often a cause of species becoming threatened or endangered . The existence of viable habitat is critical to the survival of any species, and in many cases the fragmentation ... . One solution to the problem of habitat fragmentation is to link the fragments by preserving or planting ... on the natural environment, specifically highlighting larger wilderness areas and their fragmentation ... Laboratory Simulations of habitat fragmentation and population genetics online at Monash University ... rural paisaje fragmentacion rural pdf 1 Desfragmentacion Holanda.pdf Wildlife passages De Fragmentation ... expanded other DEFAULTSORT Habitat Fragmentation Category Habitats Fragmentation Category ... fragmenteerumine es Fragmentaci n de h bitat fr Fragmentation copaysag re gl Fragmentaci n do ... more details
Image A DNA orbit animated small.gif right frame The A DNA structure. A DNA is one of the many possible double helical structures of DNA . A DNA is thought to be one of three biologically active double helical structures along with B DNA B and Z DNA . It is a right handed double helix fairly similar to the more common and well known B DNA form, but with a shorter more compact helical structure. It appears likely that it occurs only in dehydrated samples of DNA, such as those used in crystallographic experiments, and possibly is also assumed by DNA RNA hybrid helices and by regions of double stranded RNA. Structure A DNA is fairly similar to B DNA given that it is a right handed double helix with major ... turn. This results in a deepening of the major groove and a shallowing of the minor. Predicting A DNA structure An algorithm for predicting the propensity of a sequence to flip from B DNA to A DNA ... cite journal author Basham B, Schroth GP, Ho PS title An A DNA triplet code thermodynamic rules for predicting A and B DNA journal Proc Natl Acad Sci USA volume 92 issue 14 pages 6464 6468 year ... in the hydration of DNA surfaces can be used to distinguish between sequences that form A and B DNA. From this, a triplet code of A DNA propensities was derived as energetic rules for predicting A DNA formation. This code correctly predicted 90 of A and B DNA sequences in crystals and correlates with A DNA formation in solution. Thus, with our previous studies on Z DNA, we now have a single method to predict the relative stability of sequences in the three standard DNA duplex conformations. ref name Basham1995 blockquote Comparison Geometries of the Most Common DNA Forms Image A DNA, B DNA and Z DNA.png right thumb Side view of A , B , and Z DNA. Image B&Z&A DNA formula.jpg thumb right 250px The helix axis of A , B , and Z DNA. class wikitable Geometry attribute A form B form Z form Helix ... also Mechanical properties of DNADNA B DNA Z DNA External links http www.tulane.edu biochem nolan ... more details
mergefrom Rainforest collapse date April 2011 Forest fragmentation is a form of habitat fragmentation , occurring when forests are cut down in a manner that leaves relatively small, isolated patches of forest known as forest fragments or forest remnants . The intervening matrix that separates the remaining woodland patches can be natural open areas, farmland, or developed areas. Following the principles of island biogeography , remnant woodlands act like islands of forest in a sea of pastures, fields, subdivisions, shopping malls, etc. ref name SahneyBentonFerry2010LinksDiversityVertebrates cite journal url http geology.geoscienceworld.org cgi content abstract 38 12 1079 author Sahney, S., Benton, M.J. & Falcon Lang, H.J. year 2010 title Rainforest collapse triggered Pennsylvanian tetrapod diversification in Euramerica journal Geology volume 38 pages 1079 1082 format PDF doi 10.1130 G31182.1 issue 12 ref Natural Causes of Forest Fragmentation Forests may also be fragmented by natural processes such as fire and changes in climate. ref name SahneyBentonFerry2010LinksDiversityVertebrates cite journal url http geology.geoscienceworld.org cgi content abstract 38 12 1079 author Sahney, S., Benton, M.J. & Falcon Lang, H.J. year 2010 title Rainforest collapse triggered Pennsylvanian tetrapod diversification in Euramerica journal Geology volume 38 pages 1079 1082 format PDF doi 10.1130 G31182.1 issue 12 , abstract only ref For example, 300 million years ago in the Carboniferous the tropical rainforests in Euramerica were fragmented due to a change in climate. There was a great loss of amphibian ... implications Forest fragmentation is one of the greatest threats to biodiversity in forests, especially ... that caused the fragmentation in the first place is compounded by the inability of individual forest ... of Chicago Press id ISBN 0226317633 ref The effect of fragmentation on the flora and fauna of a forest ... is much greater than the single forest. References references DEFAULTSORT Forest Fragmentation Category ... more details
Other uses Fragmentation disambiguation Fragmentation or clonal fragmentation in multicellular or colonial organisms is a form of asexual reproduction asexual reproduction or cloning where an organism is split into fragments. Each of these fragments develop into mature, fully grown individuals that are clones of the original organism. The splitting may or may not be intentional it may occur due to man made or natural damage by the environment or predators this kind of organism s may develop specific organs or zones that may be shed or easily broken off. If the splitting occurs without the prior preparation of the organism, both fragments must be able to regeneration biology regenerate the complete organism for it to function as reproduction. Fragmentation is as a method of reproduction is seen in many organisms such as filamentous cyanobacteria , mold s, lichens , many plants, and animals like sponges , Turbellaria acoel flatworms , some annelid worms, and sea star s. Fragmentation in various organisms Molds, yeast , and mushroom s, all of which are part of the Fungi kingdom biology kingdom , produce tiny filaments called hypha e. These hyphae obtain food and nutrients from the body ... . Plants Fragmentation is a very common type of vegetative reproduction in plant s. Many tree ... shoot becomes detached from the colony,then fragmentation has occurred. There are several other mechanisms of natural fragmentation in plants. Production of specilized reproductive structures ... Sedum and Echeveria . Fragmentation is observed in nonvascular plants as well, for example in liverworts ... broken off and distributed. People use fragmentation to artificially propagate many plants via ... of coral colonies can increase in number by fragmentation that occurs naturally ref Cite journal doi issn 0022 0981 volume 251 issue 1 pages 41 57 last Lirman first Diego title Fragmentation in the branching ... species, and conditions of care. Genera that have shown to be highly tolerant of fragmentation ... more details
confusing date March 2012 unreferenced date March 2012 Fragmentation of memory is a memory disorder, in which patient is unable to organize memories in space or and time. The impaired person can remember things, but cannot pinpoint when the events happened, and has poor sense of time personal timeline is distorted, months, or even years are confused even for relatively recent events. The impaired person usually suffers from physical damage or underdevelopment of hippocampus . It may be a genetic disorder, or consequence of some traumatic disorder, like PTSD . Disfunctional brain often has other related consequences, like oversensitivity to some stimulus stimuli , impulsivity impulsiveness , lack of direction in life, sometimes aggressive agressiveness and distorted perception of self and ability to truly empathize with others, which is usually masked on the first sight. Abnormal psych stub Category Memory disorders ... more details
Feudal fragmentation ref name G recki2007 cite book author Piotr G recki title A local society in transition the Henryk w book and related documents url http books.google.com books?id EzdSUYDdqQC&pg PA62 accessdate 23 May 2011 date 1 January 2007 publisher PIMS isbn 9780888441553 page 62 ref is a stage in the development of certain feudal states, in which it is split into smaller regional state structures, each characterized by significant autonomy if not outright independence and ruled by a high ranking noble such as a prince or a duke. ref name WIEM pl icon http portalwiedzy.onet.pl 94616,,,,rozbicie dzielnicowe,haslo.html Rozbicie dzielnicowe . WIEM Encyklopedia . ref ref name PWN pl icon http encyklopedia.pwn.pl index.php?module haslo&id 3969193 rozbicie dzielnicowe . Internetowa encyklopedia PWN PWN Encyklopedia . ref Feudal fragmentation is usually associated with European history around the Middle Ages . ref name FrankGills1996 Feudal fragmentation occurs after the death of the legitimate ruler leaves no clear heirs, and rulers of various subdivisions of the original state fail at electing or agreeing on a new leader for the previous, larger entity. In some cases for example, the Holy Roman Empire such a leader may be elected, yet wield much lesser powers than those of his predecessor. Feudal fragmentation is related to the concepts of agnatic seniority and principat Slavic principate . ref name PWN File TestamentKrzywoustego.png thumb right Fragmentation of Poland between ... in history of Poland , the fragmentation of Poland or regionalization ref name Davies2005 cite book ... of the Balkans in the history of Bulgaria , the late 14th century fragmentation of the Second Bulgarian ... to Samir Amin , feudal fragmentation has been mostly a European phenomenon and did not occur in the history ... ref At the same time, the term feudal fragmentation has been used in the context of history of China ... Feudal Fragmentation Category Divided regions Category Feudalism Category History pl Rozdrobnienie feudalne ... more details
UVB induced apoptosis is the Apoptosis programmed cell death of cells that become damaged by Ultraviolet ultraviolet rays . This is notable in skin cells, to prevent melanoma . Some studies have shown that exercise accelerates this process. Apoptosis is a physiological process, that promotes the active suicide of cells, resulting in an advantage, unlike necrosis which occurs from trauma. In the average human adult it is estimated that 50 to 70 billion cells die each day from apoptosis. One of the largest promoters of apoptosis is exposure to ultraviolet UV light. While UV light is essential to human life it can also cause harm by inducing cancer, immunosuppression, photoaging , inflammation, and cell death ref cite journal last Schwart first A coauthors Bhardwaj R, Aragane Y, Mahnke K, Riemann H, Metze D, Luger TA, Schwarz T title Ultraviolet B Induced Apoptosis of Keratinocytes Evidence for partial involvement of tumor necrosis factor alpha in the formation of sunburn cells journal The Society for Investigative Dermatology year 1995 month June volume 104 issue 6 pages 922 927 ref . One consequence of acute UVB exposure is the occurrence of sunburn cells, keratinocytes , within the epidermis ... ref . It has been found that when exposed to UVB radiation the DNA in an epidermis cell undergoes fragmentation, which could result in the growth of tumor cells. To prevent this the cell undergoes ... by promoting the death of the cell. UVB Induced Apoptosis Pathway The sequence of events that leads to apoptosis is multifaceted and complex. Despite the simple concept of apoptosis, the sequence ... D, Grossman D title UVB Induced Apoptosis drives clonal expansion during skin tumor development journal Carcinogenesis year 2005 volume 26 pages 249 257 ref . Since apoptosis is a last resort ... apoptosis ref cite journal last Pedeux first R. coauthors Sengupta S, Shen JC, et al title ING2 ... humanbiology 060513 skin cancer.html LiveScience article on the subject DEFAULTSORT Uvb induced apoptosis ... more details
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