Refimprove date December 2009 File Budget constraint.svg thumb 250px Budgetconstraint, where math A frac m P y math and math B frac m P x math A budgetconstraint represents the combinations of goods ... uses the concepts of a budgetconstraint mathematics constraint and a preference map to analyze consumer ... of indifference curves preference map is tangent to their budgetconstraint. That is, the indifference curve tangent to the budgetconstraint represents the maximum utility obtained utilizing the entire budget of the consumer. The tangent point the xy coordinate represents the amount of goods x and y the consumer should purchase to fully utilize their budget to obtain maximum utility. ref Lipsey 1975 . p 182. ref A line connecting all points of tangency between the indifference curve and the budgetconstraint is called the expansion path . ref name Salvatore Salvatore, Dominick 1989 . Schaum s outline ... budget constraints on production. A production possibility frontier is a budgetconstraint presented ... and Krugman models of international trade, the budgetconstraint of the economy its CPF is determined ... between multiple goods through a budgetconstraint. In such a case, assuming there are math n , math ... entirely, the budgetconstraint binds math sum i 1 np ix i W. math In this case, the consumer cannot ... isbn 0 297 76899 9 DEFAULTSORT BudgetConstraint Category Consumer theory Category Budgets Constraint ... case. Uses Individual choice File Indifference curves showing budget line.svg thumb right An individual ... two dimensional budget constraints are generalized into the equation math P x x P y y m math Where ... and math P x P y math is the slope, representing a downward sloping budget line. The factors that can shift the budget line are a change in income m , a change in the price of a specific good ... . Many goods While low level demonstrations of budget constraints are often limited to two good ... is denoted by math p i , math , and if math ,W , math is the total amount that may be spent, then the budget ... more details
wiktionarypar constraintConstraint is the element factor or a subsystem that works as a bottleneck. It restricts an entity, project, or system such as a manufacturing or decision making process from achieving its potential or higher level of output with reference to its goal. Constraint may refer to Theory of Constraints , in business management Loading gauge or structure gauge constraints in engineering A constraint on constrained writing , in literature For example, Oulipo Constraints Oulipian constraints In mathematics Constraint mathematics Constraint information theory Constraint algorithm such as SHAKE, or LINCS In computing Constraint satisfaction , in computer science Constraint logic programming Finite domains Finite domain constraints , in constraint satisfaction. Integrity constraints , an element of database design See also Carrier s constraint Restraint disambiguation disambig es Restricci n ... more details
or household to spend no more than its total resources is often called the budgetconstraint ...About the rental car company Budget Rent a Car the car insurance company BudgetBudget Group of Companies Refimprove date March 2011 A budget from old French language French bougette , purse is a financial ... 3 ref A budget is an important concept in microeconomics , which uses a budget line to illustrate the trade offs between two or more good economics goods . In other terms, a budget is an organizational ... to be measured against the forecast. Establish the cost constraint for a project , program, or Business operations operation . Why do we produce budgets? Budget helps to aid the planning of actual ... their own operation and those of other departments. Other essentials of budget include To control ... to achieve budget goals. To evaluate the performance of managers To provide visibility into the company s performance Business start up budget The process of calculating the costs of starting a small .... The budget should contain a narrative explaining how you decided on the amount of this reserve ... expenses are also included into business budgeting. Corporate budget The budget of a company law company is often compiled annually, but may not be. A finished budget, usually requiring considerable effort, is a plan for the short term future, typically one year see budget year . While traditionally the Finance department compiles the company s budget, modern software allows hundreds or even thousands ... revenues and expenses in the final budget. If the actual figures delivered through the budget period come close to the budget, this suggests that the managers understand their business and have been ... from the budget, this sends an out of control signal, and the share price could suffer as a result. Event management budget A budget is a fundamental tool for an event management event director to predict .... A budget can also be used as a Pricing science pricing tool . There are two basic approaches or philosophies ... more details
Orphan date February 2009 about the Amish newspaper budgets in general Budget The Budget is a weekly newspaper written for and by members of the Amish , Amish Mennonite , Beachy Amish , and Mennonite communities from 1890 to the present. Currently, The Budget is published in two editions a local edition and a national edition, each with different content and readership. History The founder and first editor of The Budget from 1890 though 1913 was Amish Mennonite John C. Miller, who was nicknamed Budget John . Amish Mennonite minister Samuel H. Miller was the second editor through 1920. He was followed by S.A. Smith until 1930, when Smith s son George R. Smith took over until 1969. Serving as editor for nearly 40 years, and continuing as associate editor even after that, George R. Smith contributed greatly to shaping The Budget into what it is today. The current publisher since 2000 is Keith Rathbun, formerly of the Cleveland Scene alternative weekly. Rathbun gave The Budget its first online exposure in the form of an official website , a move which surprised some of the readership and generated some Mass media mainstream media attention due to the apparent logical contradiction of an Amish website. Local edition The local edition focuses on stories of local interest in several Ohio counties, and includes several pages of non Amish specific content. It is the most read newspaper in its area including Holmes County, Ohio Holmes county as well as parts of Tuscarawas County, Ohio Tuscarawas , Wayne County, Ohio Wayne and Coshocton County, Ohio Coshocton County US counties . National ... I Saw It in the Budget publisher Diakonia Ministries location Hartville, Ohio Hartville, OH year ... work S ddeutsche Zeitung date June 27, 2009 External links https www.facebook.com pages The Budget ... encyclopedia contents B8393.html Budget, The Periodical at Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online DEFAULTSORT Budget, The Category Amish Category Newspapers published in Ohio pdc The Budget ... more details
for a graph in electronic design automation Constraint graph layout In constraint satisfaction research of artificial intelligence and operations research , constraint graphs and hypergraphs are used to represent relations among constraints in a constraint satisfaction problem . Constraint hypergraph The constraint hypergraph of a constraint satisfaction problem is a hypergraph in which hypervertices correspond to the variables and the hyperedges correspond to the constraints. Two hypervertices are in the same hyperedge if the two variables occur in the same constraint. ref name handbook A simple way to represent the constraint hypergraph is by using a classical graph with the following properties Vertices correspond either to variables or to constraints, an edge can only connect a variable vertex to a constraint vertex, and there is an edge between a variable vertex and a constraint vertex if and only if the corresponding variable occurs in the corresponding constraint. Properties 1 and 2 define a bipartite graph . The definition of the hypergraph is obtained by defining the hypervertices ... constraint vertex. Primal constraint graph The primal constraint graph or simply primal graph also the Gaifman graph of a constraint satisfaction problem is the graph mathematics graph whose nodes are the variables ... in a constraint. ref name handbook Handbook of Constraint Programming , by Francesca Rossi, Peter ... 22primal constraint graph 22 wikipedia&ei XnTzSP OCoPytQO1zpD2Bg&sig ACfU3U029fE32OVFYg63vL PZ4bFsvgBYQ PPA212,M1 p. 211, 212 ref The primal constraint graph is in fact the primal graph hypergraphs primal graph of the constraint hypergraph. Dual constraint graph The set of variables involved in a constraint is called the constraint scope . The dual constraint graph is the graph in which the vertices are all possible constraint scopes involved in the constraints of the problem and two vertices ... reflist Category Constraint programming Category Application specific graphs math stub ... more details
In artificial intelligence and operations research , a regular constraint is a kind of global constraint . It can be used to solve a particular type of puzzle called a nonogram or logigrams. External links Paltzer, Nikos. http www.ps.uni sb.de courses seminar ws04 papers paltzer.pdf Regular Language Membership Constraint Category Constraint programming Compu AI stub Mathapplied stub ... more details
In constraint satisfaction problem constraint satisfaction backtracking algorithm s, constraint learning ... is found. This new constraint may reduce the search space , as future partial evaluations may ... assigned variable, as expected by recursion. A constraint learning algorithm differs because it tries to record some information, before backtracking, in form of a new constraint. This can reduce the further ... with this new constraint. If the algorithm has learned the new constraint, it will backtrack ... solution math x 1 a 1, ldots,x k a k math is inconsistent, the problem instance implies the constraint .... However, recording this constraint is not useful, as this partial solution will not be encountered ..., the corresponding constraint may be useful in the subsequent search, as the same subset of the partial .... If this subset is inconsistent and the algorithm has stored this fact in form of a constraint ... a solution. cellpadding 20 Image Constraint learning 1.svg Image Constraint learning 2.svg Image Constraint ... x 1 math and math x 4 math only. This fact can be stored in a new constraint. If the algorithm reaches the same values of math x 1 math and math x 4 math again, the new constraint blocks the search. Efficiency of constraint learning The efficiency of constraint learning algorithm is balanced between two factors. On one hand, the more often a recorded constraint is violated, the more often backtracking ... not the only feature of learned constraints to take into account. Indeed, a small constraint may ... again. A larger constraint whose violating values are more similar to the current partial assignment may be preferred in such cases. Various constraint learning techniques exist, differing ... of the truth evaluation of math x 1, ldots,x k math to variables that are in a constraint with math x k 1 math , provided that this constraint contains no unassigned variable. Learning ... of variables are in the same constraint, which can be found out from the graph associated to the constraint ... more details
In artificial intelligence and operations research , constraint satisfaction is the process of finding a solution to a set of Constraint mathematics constraint s that impose conditions that the Variable ... that satisfies all constraints. The techniques used in constraint satisfaction depend on the kind of constraints being considered. Often used are constraints on a finite domain, to the point that constraint ... or local search constraint satisfaction local search . Constraint propagation are other methods ... or prove it unsatisfiable, but not always. Constraint propagation methods are also used in conjunction ... or the simplex algorithm . Constraint satisfaction originated in the field of artificial intelligence ... into a programming language were developed. Languages often used for constraint programming are Prolog and C . Constraint satisfaction problem main Constraint satisfaction problem As originally ... take. Informally, a finite domain is a finite set of arbitrary elements. A constraint satisfaction ... of constraints, each constraint specifying the allowed values for a group of variables. A solution ... values of the variables that would satisfy the constraint. One of the most used constraints is the one ... be expressed as constraint satisfaction problems are the Eight queens puzzle , the Sudoku solving ... definition of a constraint satisfaction problem, arithmetic equations and inequalities bound the values ... the definition of a constraint satisfaction problem , which is limited to finite domains. They are however used often in constraint programming . Solving Constraint satisfaction problems on finite ... of backtracking , constraint propagation , and Local search optimization local search . These techniques ... been generalized to any finite CSP in another book by the same author lang en Constraint Resolution Theories ref name Constraint Resolution Theories en cite news first Denis last Berthier titre lang en Constraint Resolution Theories url http www.carva.org denis.berthier CRT work Lulu Publishers, ISBN ... more details
A check constraint also known as table check constraint is a condition that defines valid data when adding or updating an entry in a table of a relational database . A check constraint is applied to each row in the table. The constraint must be a predicate. It can refer to a single or multiple columns of the table. The result of the predicate can be either TRUE, FALSE, or UNKNOWN, depending on the presence of Null SQL NULLs . If the predicate evaluates to UNKNOWN, then the constraint is not violated and the row can be inserted or updated in the table. This is contrary to predicates in WHERE clauses in Select SQL SELECT or Update SQL UPDATE statements. For example, in a table containing products, one could add a check constraint such that the price of a product and quantity of a product is a non negative value PRICE 0 QUANTITY 0 If these constraints were not in place, it would be possible to have a negative price 30 or quantity 3 items . Check constraints are used to ensure the validity of data in a database and to provide data integrity . If they are used at the database level, applications ... invalid, even if the application itself accepts invalid data. Definition Each check constraint ... CREATE TABLE table name ..., CONSTRAINTconstraint name CHECK predicate , ... ALTER TABLE table name ADD CONSTRAINTconstraint name CHECK predicate If the check constraint refers to a single column only, it is possible to specify the constraint as part of the column definition. CREATE TABLE table name ... column name type CHECK predicate , ... NOT NULL Constraint A NOT Null SQL NULL constraint is functionally equivalent to the following check constraint with an code IS NOT NULL code predicate ... are able to optimize performance when the code NOT NULL code constraint syntax is used as opposed to the CHECK constraint syntax given above. ref PostgreSQL 8.3devel Documentation, Chapter 5. Data ... modifications to these records would then be prevented by the CHECK constraint. Some examples of dangerous ... more details
In constraint satisfaction , constraint inference is a relationship between constraints and their consequences. A set of constraints math D math entails a constraint math C math if every solution to math D math is also a solution to math C math . In other words, if math V math is a valuation of the variables in the scopes of the constraints in math D math and all constraints in math D math are satisfied by math V math , then math V math also satisfies the constraint math C math . Some operations on constraints produce a new constraint that is a consequence of them. Constraint composition operates on a pair of binary constraints math x,y ,R math and math y,z ,S math with a common variable. The composition of such two constraints is the constraint math x,z ,Q math that is satisfied by every evaluation of the two non shared variables for which there exists a value of the shared variable math ... x,y ,R math and math y,z ,S math . Constraint projection restricts the effects of a constraint to some of its variables. Given a constraint math t,R math its projection to a subset math t math of its variables is the constraint math t ,R math that is satisfied by an evaluation if this evaluation can be extended to the other variables in such a way the original constraint math t,R math is satisfied ... of possibly non binary constraints the generated constraint is on an arbitrary subset of the variables ..., the extended composition of them is the constraint math A,R math where an evaluation of math A math satisfies this constraint if it can be extended to the other variables so that math C 1, ldots,C m math are all satisfied. See also Constraint satisfaction problem References cite book first Rina last Dechter title Constraint processing publisher Morgan Kaufmann year 2003 url http ... Principles of constraint programming publisher Cambridge University Press year 2003 ISBN 0 521 82583 ... year 1998 publisher MIT Press ISBN 0 262 13341 5 Category Constraint programming Category ... more details
No footnotes date April 2009 In loop quantum gravity , dynamics such as time evolutions of fields are controlled by the Hamiltonian constraint . The identity of the Hamiltonian constraint is a major open question in quantum gravity , as is extracting of physical observables from any such specific constraint. The Thomas Thiemann Thiemann Operator physics operator has been proposed as such a constraint. Although this operator defines a complete and consistent quantum theory, doubts have been raised as to the physical reality of this theory due to inconsistencies with classical general relativity the quantum constraint algebra closes, but it is not isomorphic to the classical constraint algebra of GR, which is seen as circumstantial evidence of inconsistencies definitely not a proof of inconsistencies , and so variants have been proposed. External links http relativity.livingreviews.org open?pubNo lrr 1998 1&page node27.html Overview by Carlo Rovelli http arxiv.org abs gr qc 9606088 Thiemann s paper in Physics Letters http arxiv.org pdf gr qc 9710008 Good information on LQG Category Loop quantum gravity quantum stub ... more details
Unreferenced date January 2008 dicdef Binary constraint , in mathematical optimization , is a constraint that involves exactly two variables. For example, consider the n queens problem , where the goal is to place n Queen chess chess queens on an n by n chessboard such that none of the queens can attack each other horizontally, vertically, or diagonally . The formal set of constraints are therefore Queen 1 can t attack Queen 2 , Queen 1 can t attack Queen 3 , and so on between all pairs of queens. Each constraint in this problem is binary, in that it only considers the placement of two individual queens. Long comment to avoid being listed on short pages Category Mathematical optimization Category Constraint programming Mathapplied stub ... more details
Orphan date February 2009 Unreferenced date February 2007 In theoretical physics , a constraint algebra is a linear space of all Constraint mathematics constraint s and all of their polynomial functions or functionals whose action on the physical vectors of the Hilbert space should be equal to zero. For example, in electromagnetism, the equation for the Gauss law math nabla cdot vec E rho math is an equation of motion that does not include any time derivatives. This is why it is counted as a constraint, not a dynamical equation of motion. In quantum electrodynamics , one first constructs a Hilbert space in which Gauss law does not hold automatically. The true Hilbert space of physical states is constructed as a subspace of the original Hilbert space of vectors that satisfy math nabla cdot vec E x rho x psi rangle 0. math In more general theories, the constraint algebra may be a noncommutative algebra . See also First class constraints Category Quantum mechanics Category Quantum field theory phys stub ... more details
Original research date June 2011 Programming paradigms Constraint programming is a programming paradigm wherein relations between variables are stated in the form of constraint mathematics constraint s. Constraints .... This makes constraint programming a form of declarative programming . The constraints used in constraint programming are of various kinds those used in constraint satisfaction problem s e.g. A or B ... are usually embedded within a programming language or provided via separate software libraries. Constraint programming can be done in the form of constraint logic programming , which embeds constraints ... of constraint logic programming were Prolog III , CLP R , and CHIP programming language CHIP . Other ... programming . Mostly, constraints are implemented in imperative languages via constraint solving toolkits , which are separate libraries for an existing imperative language. Constraint logic programming main Constraint logic programming Constraint programming is an embedding of constraints ... called constraint logic programming . The two paradigms share many important features, like ... for constraint logic programming. The difference between the two is largely in their styles and approaches ... programs, while some are more natural to write as constraint programs. The constraint programming ... variables. The constraint program searches for values for all the variables. Temporal concurrent constraint programming TCC and non deterministic temporal concurrent constraint programming NTCC are variants of constraint programming that can deal with time. Some popular constraint logic languages ... SWI Prolog a free software free Prolog system containing several libraries for constraint solving ... based, with free software free implementations Domains The constraints used in constraint programming are typically over some specific domains. Some popular domains for constraint programming are Boolean ..., involving two or more of the above Finite domains is one of the most successful domains of constraint ... more details
In mathematics , a constraint is a condition that a solution to an optimization mathematics optimization problem is required by the problem itself to satisfy. There are two types of constraints equality constraints and inequality constraints . The set of candidate solution s that satisfy all constraints is called the feasible set . Example The following is a simple optimization problem math min f bold x x 1 2 x 2 4 math subject to math x 1 ge 1 math and math x 2 1, , math where math bold x math denotes the Vectorization mathematics vector x sub 1 sub , x sub 2 sub . In this example, the first line defines the function to be minimized called the objective or cost function . The second and third lines define two constraints, the first of which is an inequality constraint and the second of which is an equality constraint. These two constraints define the feasible set of candidate solutions. Without the constraints, the solution would be math 0,0 , math where math f bold x math has the lowest value. But this solution does not satisfy the constraints. The solution of the constrained optimization ... f bold x math that satisfies the two constraints. Terminology If an inequality constraint holds with equality at the optimal point, the constraint is said to be visible anchor binding , as the point cannot be varied in the direction of the constraint even though doing so would improve the value of the objective function. If an inequality constraint holds as a strict inequality at the optimal point that is, does not hold with equality , the constraint is said to be visible anchor non binding , as the point could be varied in the direction of the constraint, although it would not be optimal to do so. If a constraint is non binding, the optimization problem would have the same solution even in the absence of that constraint. If a constraint is not satisfied at a given point, the point is said to be Feasible region infeasible . See also Constraint satisfaction problem Karush&ndash Kuhn&ndash ... more details
Orphan date October 2008 A transition constraint is a way of enforcing that the data doesn t enter an impossible state because of a previous state. For example, it shouldn t be possible for a person to change from being married to being single, never married . The only valid states after married might be divorced , widowed , or deceased . Transition constraint is commonly used in database model s such as relational databases . References http citeseer.ist.psu.edu 612731.html Modelling Transition Constraints ResearchIndex Category Data modeling database stub ... more details
In computer science , Constraint automata are a formalism to describe the behavior and possible data flow in coordination models ref http adsabs.harvard.edu abs 2009acse.book..972N Linear Temporal Logic of Constraint Automata by Sara Navidpour and Mohammad Izadi, Department of Mathematical Science, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran. ref . It was introduced by Arbab et al. ref http ftp.cwi.nl CWIreports SEN SEN R0309.pdf Effective Modeling of Software Architectural Assemblies Using Constraint Automata by Nikunj R. Mehta, Marjan Sirjani, and Farhad Arbab. Centrum Wiskunde & Informatica CWI Technical Report SEN R0309, October 22, 2003. ref as a variation of finite automata for model checking Reo connector circuits. Constraint automata can be considered generalizations of Probabilistic automaton probabilistic automata , in which data constraints, instead of probabilities, label state transitions and influence their firing. See also Model checking Finite automata Probabilistic automaton Colored Petri net References reflist Category Automata theory ... more details
Orphan date February 2009 In robot motion planning , a Pfaffian constraint is a set of k linearly independent Constraint mathematics constraint s linear in velocity, i.e., of the form math A q dot q 0 math One source of Pfaffian constraints is rolling without slipping in wheeled robot s. ref name Choset2005 cite book author Choset, H.M. year 2005 title Principles of Robot Motion Theory, Algorithms, and Implementation publisher The MIT Press isbn 0262033275 ref References reflist Category Robot kinematics Category Control theory ... more details
In constraint satisfaction , constrained optimization also called constraint optimization seeks for a solution maximizing or minimizing a cost function . Definition A constraint optimization problem can be defined as a regular constraint satisfaction problem in which constraints are weighted and the goal is to find a solution maximizing the weight of satisfied constraints. Alternatively, a constraint optimization problem can be defined as a regular constraint satisfaction problem augmented with a number of local cost functions. The aim of constraint optimization is to find a solution to the problem whose cost, evaluated as the sum of the cost functions, is maximized or minimized. The regular constraints are called hard constraints , while the cost functions are called soft constraints . These names ...,n math and math h j mathbf x le d j mathrm for j 1, cdots,m math are constraint functions that need to be satisfied. Solution methods Branch and bound Constraint optimization can be solved by branch ... each soft constraint separately. For each soft constraint, the maximal possible value for any ... constraints may derive from different evaluations a soft constraint may be maximal for math x a math while another constraint is maximal for math x b math . Russian doll search This method runs a branch ... elimination The bucket elimination algorithm can be adapted for constraint optimization. A given ... soft constraint. The cost of this new constraint is computed assuming a maximal value for every ... except math x math , the new soft constraint is defined by not exactly the correct notation, but clear ... constraints of the bucket are replaced as above to remove the variable. The resulting constraint is then placed in the appropriate bucket. See also Distributed constraint optimization Penalty method Lagrange multipliers References cite book first Rina last Dechter title Constraint Processing publisher ... 7 Category Mathematical optimization Category Constraint programming ... more details
Constraint Grammar CG is a methodological paradigm for Natural language processing NLP . Linguist written, context dependent rules are compiled into a grammar that assigns grammatical tags readings to words or other tokens in running text. Typical tags address lemmatisation lexeme or base form , inflexion , derivation linguistics derivation , syntactic function , dependency, Valency linguistics valency , case role s, semantic type etc. Each rule either adds, removes, selects or replaces a tag or a set of grammatical tags in a given sentence context. Context conditions can be linked to any tag or tag ... of a given kind, thus providing a high degree of robustness. The Constraint Grammar concept was launched ... projects have used Constraint Grammar for automatic annotation. CG methodology has also used in a number .... List of Constraint Grammar systems sorted by language Free software http beta.visl.sdu.dk cg3.html VISL CG 3 Constraint Grammar compiler parser Northern Sami language North and Lule Sami language Lule ... constraint grammar.html DanGram English http www2.lingsoft.fi cgi bin engcg ENGCG , http www.ling.helsinki.fi avoutila cg index.html ENGCG 2 , http beta.visl.sdu.dk constraint grammar.html VISL ENGCG Esperanto http beta.visl.sdu.dk constraint grammar.html EspGram French http beta.visl.sdu.dk constraint grammar.html FrAG German http beta.visl.sdu.dk constraint grammar.html GerGram Irish https ... http beta.visl.sdu.dk constraint grammar.html HISPAL Swedish http www2.lingsoft.fi doc swecg intro SWECG Swahili Portuguese http beta.visl.sdu.dk constraint grammar.html PALAVRAS External links http kevindonnelly.org.uk 2010 05 constraint grammar tutorial CG Tutorial by Kevin Donnelly http beta.visl.sdu.dk .... 2000. The Parsing System Palavras Automatic Grammatical Analysis of Portuguese in a Constraint Grammar Framework . Aarhus Aarhus University Press. ISBN 87 7288 910 1. Karlsson, Fred. 1990. Constraint ..., Fred, Atro Voutilainen, Juha Heikkil , and Arto Anttila, editors. 1995. Constraint Grammar A Language ... more details
Orphan date October 2011 In corporate governance , the outrage constraint is an upper limit on executive pay . ref name Krugman2002 Cite news last Krugman first Paul title The Outrage Constraint url http www.nytimes.com 2002 08 23 opinion the outrage constraint.html work The New York Times date 2002 08 23 accessdate 22 October 2011 quote In practice, modern C.E.O. s set their own compensation, limited only by the outrage constraint outrage not on the part of the board, whose members depend on the C.E.O. s good will for many of their perks, but on the part of outside groups that can make trouble. ref ref name BebchukFried2006 cite book author1 Lucian Arye Bebchuk author2 Jesse M. Fried title Pay Without Performance The Unfulfilled Promise of Executive Compensation url http books.google.com books?id JDDnbxaleNsC&pg PA65 accessdate 25 October 2011 date 1 September 2006 origyear Previous edition 2004 publisher Harvard University Press isbn 978 0 674 02228 7 page 65 quote When the potential outrage costs are large enough, they will deter the adoption of arrangements that managers would otherwise favor. We shall refer to arrangements that are deterred in this way as ones that violate the outrage constraint. ref ref Cite journal last Sheehan first Kym title Is the Outrage Constraint an Effective Constraint on Executive Remuneration? Evidence from the UK and Preliminary Results from Australia url http papers.ssrn.com sol3 papers.cfm?abstract id 974965 publisher Social Science Research Network date 2007 03 18 accessdate 23 October 2011 quote The managerial power thesis of Professors Lucian Bebchuk and Jesse Fried argues that outrage is perhaps the only effective constraint on executive remuneration, where the board of directors is effectively dominated by a sufficiently powerful CEO or senior management group. ref ref cite conference url http www.people.fas.harvard.edu idew papers ... boards of directors and are mainly restricted by an outrage constraint where shareholders retaliate ... more details
Unreferenced date July 2008 A liquidity constraint in economic theory is a form of imperfection in the capital market . It causes difficulties for models based on intertemporal consumption . Many economic models require individuals to Saving money save or borrow money from time to time. A liquidity constraint is an arbitrary limit on the amount an individual can borrow, or an arbitrary alteration in the interest rate they pay. By raising the costs of borrowing, they prevent individuals from fully optimising their behaviour over time. Actually existing liquidity constraints are mainly due to risk based behaviour by lenders such as bank s. Mortgage loan Mortgage lending is the cheapest way of an individual borrowing money, but is only available to people with enough savings to buy property. Because the loan is secured on a house or other property, it is only accessible to particular individuals those who have enough savings to put down a deposit . Other forms of credit, like loan unsecured loan s, credit card s and loan shark s, have progressively higher interest rates, and are used more by poorer people. econ stub Category Intertemporal economics ... more details
Carrier s constraint is the observation that air breathing vertebrates which have two lungs and flex their bodies sideways during animal locomotion locomotion find it very difficult to move and breathe at the same time, because the sideways flexing expands one lung and compresses the other. this shunts stale air from lung to lung instead of expelling it completely to make room for fresh air. ref cite journal last Carrier first D.R. title The evolution of locomotor stamina in tetrapods circumventing a mechanical constraint journal Paleobiology volume issue 13 pages 326 341 year 1987 ref Consequences of Carrier s constraint Most lizards move in short bursts, with long pauses for breath. Around the Late Triassic period, animals with Carrier s constraint were preyed on by bipedal species that evolved a more efficient stride. Ways of avoiding Carrier s constraint Partial solutions Snake s have only one lung. It is not known how this lung operates during locomotion, other than that they can indeed move and breathe at the same time. Monitor lizard s increase their stamina by using bones and muscles in the throat and floor of the mouth to gulp air via gular pumping . ref cite web url http biomechanics.bio.uci.edu html nh biomech monitor monitor.htm title Monitor Marathons year 2003 last Summers first A ref Dead link date March 2012 Crocodilians use a high walk , with a more erect limb posture that minimizes sideways flexing, to cross long distances. However, as they evolved from upright walkers with limited bipedality, this may simply be a remnant of past behavior rather than a specific adaptation to overcome this difficulty. Complete solutions Bird s have erect limbs and rigid bodies, and therefore do not flex sideways when moving. In addition many of them have a mechanism which pumps both lungs simultaneously when the birds rock their hips. Most mammal s have erect limbs and flexible bodies, which makes their bodies flex vertically when moving quickly. This aids breathing ... more details
Unreferenced stub auto yes date December 2009 In theoretical physics , it is often important to study theories with the diffeomorphism symmetry such as general relativity . These theories are invariant under arbitrary coordinate transformations. Equations of motion are generally derived from the requirement that the group action action is stationary. There are special variations that are equivalent to spatial diffeomorphisms. The invariance of the action under these variations implies non dynamical equations of motion i.e. constraints. These equations must be satisfied or, at least, they must annihilate the physical states in a quantum version of the theory. See also Wheeler deWitt equation DEFAULTSORT Diffeomorphism Constraint Category Quantum gravity Category Diffeomorphisms Quantum stub ... more details
In mechanics , a constraint algorithm is a method for satisfying constraints for bodies that obey Newton ... novel unconstrained coordinates internal coordinates , introducing explicit constraint forces, and minimizing constraint forces implicitly by the technique of Lagrange multipliers or projection methods. Constraint algorithms are often applied to molecular dynamics simulations. Although such simulations ... angle constraints, they may also be carried out with explicit or implicit constraint forces for the bond lengths and bond angles. Explicit constraint forces typically shorten the time step significantly ... constraint solvers are generally preferred. Mathematical background The motion of a set of N particles ... coordinates. A second approach is to introduce explicit forces that work to maintain the constraint .... A third approach is to use a method such as Lagrange multipliers or projection to the constraint ..., internal coordinate constraint solvers were extended to molecular dynamics. ref name Bae Haug 1988a ... a the unconstrained positions are obtained after a simulation time step, b the gradients of each constraint ... of the two particles involved in the k th constraint at the time t and math d k math is the prescribed ... , quad i 1 dots N. math Adding the constraint forces does not change the total energy, since those forces ... underline lambda l mathbf 0. math This is repeated until the constraint equations math sigma k t Delta .....23..327R ref It solves the system of non linear constraint equations using the Gauss Seidel ... n math iteratively until the constraint equations math sigma k t Delta t math are solved to a given ... last Yoneya first M coauthors Berendsen HJC, Hirasawa K title A Noniterative Matrix Method for Constraint ..., and Roll Efficient Constraint Algorithms for Linked Rigid Bodies journal Journal of Computational ... math lambda k math based on the particle velocities. Finally, MSHAKE computes corrections on the constraint ... a pre conditioner which is applied to the constraint gradients before the SHAKE iteration, causing ... more details
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