Refimprove date November 2008 Carbohydratemetabolism denotes the various biochemistry biochemical processes responsible for the anabolism formation , catabolism breakdown and interconversion of carbohydrates in life living organism s. The most important carbohydrate is glucose , a simple sugar monosaccharide that is metabolized by nearly all known organisms. Glucose and other carbohydrates are part of a wide variety of metabolic pathways across species plants synthesize carbohydrates from atmospheric gases by photosynthesis storing the absorbed energy internally, often in the form of starch or lipid ... have glucoregulatory actions similar to glucagon. Human diseases of carbohydratemetabolism ... Reflist External links MeshName Carbohydratemetabolism http www.bbc.co.uk schools gcsebitesize ... http www.medbio.info Horn Sugars4Kids Sugar4Kids Carbohydratemetabolism Glycogenolysis Gluconeogenesis Fructose and galactose metabolism Glycosaminoglycan metabolism enzymes Glycoprotein metabolism enzymes DEFAULTSORT CarbohydrateMetabolism Category Metabolism da Kulhydratstofskifte de Glucose Biochemie ... . Oxidation of one gram of carbohydrate yields approximately 4 kcal of Chemical energy energy and from lipids about 9 kcal. Energy obtained from metabolism e.g. oxidation of glucose is usually stored ... down to glucose. Cellulose is a carbohydrate chain that cannot be digested by mammals, because we lack ... portions of proteins that are used for fuel. In animals, the most important carbohydrate is glucose ... weight of the solvated water carbohydrate complex. In most organisms, excess carbohydrates are regularly ... Main Carbohydrate catabolism Oligo polysaccharides are typically cleaved into smaller monosaccharides ... , or photosynthesis, in which CO sub 2 sub is reduced to carbohydrate. Glycolysis the oxidation metabolism of glucose molecules to obtain adenosine triphosphate ATP and pyruvate Pyruvate from glycolysis ... by the intake of dietary carbohydrates, diet controls major aspects of metabolism via insulin. In humans ... more details
Infobox Disease Name Inborn errors of carbohydratemetabolism Image Caption DiseasesDB ICD10 ICD10 E 73 e 70 ICD10 E 74 e 70 ICD9 ICD9 271 ICDO OMIM MedlinePlus eMedicineSubj eMedicineTopic MeshID D002239 Inborn errors of carbohydratemetabolism are inborn error of metabolism that affect the catabolism and anabolism of carbohydrates . An example is lactose intolerance . Carbohydrates account for a major portion of the human diet and are metabolized into three principal monosaccharides galactose , fructose and glucose . The failure to effectively use this sugars accounts for the majority of the inborn errors of human carbohydrates metabolism . Galactose Galactosemia , the inability to metabolize galactose , is the most common monogenic disorder of carbohydratemetabolism, affecting 1 in every 55,000 newborns. Citation needed date July 2010 When galactose is not possible to break down, it accumulates in tissues. The most common signs are failure to thrive , hepatic insufficiency, cataracts and developmental delay. Long term disabilities include poor growth, mental retardation , and ovarian failure in females. ref cite title Liver disease in children authors Frederick J. Suchy, Ronald J. Sokol, William F. Balistreri url http books.google.com books?id rGxPASmZWesC&pg PA595&hl en&ei jb8yTIikMtOGnQeV 53WAw&sa X&oi book result&ct result&resnum 1&ved 0CC0Q6AEwAA v onepage&f false pages ..., et al. 2006. Carbohydratemetabolism. Medical Genetics. 3rd edition. Chapter 7. Biochemical genetics Disorders of metabolism. pp139 142. ref References references Carbohydrate metabolic pathology Mucopolysaccharidoses Glycoproteinoses DEFAULTSORT Inborn errors of CarbohydrateMetabolism Category Diabetes Category Inborn errors of carbohydratemetabolism ... hepatic fructokinase , an enzyme that catalyzes the first step in the metabolism of dietary ... metabolism. The two organs most commonly affected are the liver and the skeletal muscle. Glycogen ... more details
acids in food. Metabolism Main Carbohydratemetabolism Expand section date June 2008 Catabolism Catabolism ... linkage . It has a formula of C sub 12 sub H sub 22 sub O sub 11 sub . A carbohydrate is an organic ..., USA pages 52 59 isbn 0 13 981176 1 ref In food science and in many informal contexts, the term carbohydrate often means any food that is particularly rich in the complex carbohydrate starch such as cereal ... s . Structure Formerly the name carbohydrate was used in chemistry for any compound with the formula ... CH sub 2 sub O to be the simplest carbohydrate, ref name coulter John Merle Coulter, Charler ... simplest carbohydrate A Textbook of Botany for Colleges and Universities ref while others claimed that title ... , http books.google.com books?id l5hqAAAAMAAJ&q simplest carbohydrate Tietz fundamentals of clinical ... of d and l is no longer followed in carbohydrate chemistry. ref cite book last Pigman first Ward ... organisms Monosaccharides are the major source of fuel for metabolism , being used both as an energy ... Foods high in carbohydrate include fruits, sweets, soft drinks, breads, pastas, beans, potatoes ..., no carbohydrate is an essential nutrient in humans. ref http www.ajcn.org content 75 5 951.2.full ... its energy from protein and fats. ref http www.ajcn.org cgi content full 75 5 951 a Is dietary carbohydrate ... A High Protein, High Fat, Carbohydrate Free Diet Reduces Energy Intake, Hepatic Lipogenesis ... amino acids, from the glycerol backbone in triglyceride s and in some cases from fatty acids. Carbohydrate ... typically cannot metabolize all types of carbohydrate to yield energy. Glucose is a nearly universal ... . http newton.nap.edu books 0309085373 html Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber .... However, the exact delineation of these categories is ambiguous. Today, simple carbohydrate typically refers to monosaccharide s and disaccharide s and complex carbohydrate means polysaccharide s and oligosaccharide s . However, the term complex carbohydrate was first used in slightly different context ... more details
arteries BBC News. Retrieved 2010 08 26 ref See also Carbohydratemetabolism Carnivore Country food ...A no carbohydrate diet no carb diet is described as human carnivorism . It excludes dietary consumption of all carbohydrates and suggests fat as the main source of energy with sufficient protein. A no carbohydrate ... varieties of offal . One of the first registries on No carbohydrate diets was in 1860 when English casket ... Money Watch. Retrieved 2010 08 26 ref More than a century after this, carbohydrate restricted diets ... to Robert Atkins nutritionist Dr Robert Atkins . While his diet is not a zero carbohydrate diet, it does ... loss than a low fat, high carbohydrate diet , although there has always been much controversy and great dispute amongst healthcare professionals concerning drastic carbohydrate restriction. ref http ... 08 26 ref No Carbohydrate Foods No Carbohydrate diet is an extreme form of low carbohydrate diets. The following ... and marrow. Medical research In lab tests on mice, prostate tumors grow slower with a no carbohydrate ... al. title Carbohydrate restriction, prostate cancer growth, and the insulin like growth factor ... that low carbohydrate diet may slow tumor growth of prostate tumors. This due to a reduction on insulin ... a low carbohydrate diet had the longest survival and smaller tumor size. ref http www.sciencedaily.com .... Retrieved 2010 08 26 ref A high fat, high protein and no carbohydrate diet and similar drink, ClearScan ... of a high fat, high protein and no carbohydrate diet versus fasting in myocardial uptake in oncology ... performance is a common but not an obligate result of a low carbohydrate diet or no carbohydrate ..., made a study of low carbohydrate, moderate carbohydrate and high carbohydrate diets, each one lasting ... bicycle was measured, and they found that with the low carbohydrate they lasted only 81 minutes ... a low carbohydrate or no carbohydrate diet. ref Phinney, Stephen D. 2004 08 17 http www.nutritionandmetabolism.com content 1 1 2 Ketogenic diets and physical performance Nutrition and Metabolism. Retrieved ... more details
chain . See also cellular respiration Carbohydratemetabolism DEFAULTSORT Carbohydrate Catabolism Category Metabolism Biochem stub ca Catabolisme dels carbohidrats ja sr ...Unreferenced date December 2009 Carbohydrate catabolism is the breakdown of carbohydrates into smaller units. Carbohydrates literally undergo combustion to retrieve the large amounts of energy in their bonds. Energy is secured by mitochondrion mitochondria in the form of Adenosine triphosphate ATP . There are several different types of carbohydrate s polysaccharide s e.g., starch , amylopectin , glycogen , cellulose , monosaccharide s e.g., glucose , galactose , fructose , ribose and the disaccharide s e.g., maltose , lactose . Glucose reacts with oxygen in the following redox reaction, C sub 6 sub H sub 12 sub O sub 6 sub 6O sub 2 sub 6CO sub 2 sub 6H sub 2 sub O, the carbon dioxide and water is a waste product and the chemical reaction is exothermic. The breakdown of glucose into energy in the form of molecules of adenosine triphosphate ATP is therefore one of the most important Metabolic pathway biochemical pathways found in living organisms. Anaerobic respiration is the metabolic pathway where glucose is broken down in the absence of oxygen . Cellular respiration Aerobic respiration is the pathway where glucose is broken down in the presence of oxygen . Glycolysis Main Glycolysis The six carbon glucose molecule is broken down into two three carbon pyruvate molecules yielding two adenosine triphosphate ATP molecules and two high energy NADH molecules. Anaerobic respiration Main Anaerobic respiration Without oxidative phosphorylation , the NADH molecules cannot be converted to ATP. When all the NAD molecules have been converted to NADH, glycolysis will stop unless the NAD is regenerated by fermentation biochemistry fermentation . Aerobic respiration Main Cellular respiration Pyruvate oxidation The three carbon pyruvate molecule loses a carbon atom and is shepherded into the citric ... more details
Multiple issues copy edit December 2011 wikify December 2011 unreferenced January 2009 Carbohydrate chemistry is a subdiscipline of chemistry primarily concerned with the synthesis, structure, and function of carbohydrate structures. Due to the general structure of carbohydrates, their synthesis is often preoccupied with the selective formation of glycosidic linkages and the selective reaction of hydroxyl groups. As a result, this chemistry relies heavily on the use of protecting groups . Monosaccharides Main monosaccharides Individual saccharide residues are termed monosaccharides. Carbohydrate synthesis Main Carbohydrate synthesis Glycosidic bond formation Chemical glycosylation Fischer glycosidation Glycosyl halide Koenigs Knorr reaction Protecting groups Carbohydrate acetalisation Oligosaccharides An oligosaccharide from the Greek oligos , a few , and sacchar , sugar is a saccharide polymer containing a small number typically two to ten 1 of component sugars, also known as simple sugars monosaccharides . Oligosaccharides can have many functions for example, they are commonly found on the plasma membrane of animal cells where they can play a role in cell cell recognition. In general, they are linked through oxygen or nitrogen atoms to compatible amino acid side chains in proteins ... , a certain level of carbohydrate is required in order to burn fats. Without essential carbohydrate ... metabolism , even though the body can use other carbon compounds such as fatty acids and ketones as energy .... In summary, the first priority of metabolism during a prolonged fast is to provide enough glucose to provide .... During the course of many hours or days, the carbohydrate polymer linked to the rest ... Carbohydrate chemistry Carbohydrate Structure CarbohydrateCarbohydrate Conformation Monosaccharide Disaccharide Oligosaccharide Polysaccharide Anomeric effect Glycosidic bond Carbohydrate function ... health carbohydrates section2.rhtml Functions of Carbohydrates Category Carbohydrate chemistry ... more details
In carbohydrate chemistry carbohydrate acetalisation is an organic reaction and a very effective means of providing a protecting group . The example below depicts the acetalisation reaction of D ribose 1 . With acetone or 2,2 Dimethoxypropane 2,2 dimethoxypropane as the acetalisation reagent the reaction is under thermodynamic reaction control and results in the pentose 2 . The latter reagent in itself is an acetal and therefore the reaction is actually a cross acetalisation . image Carbohydrateacetalisation.gif center Kinetic reaction control results from 2 methoxypropene as the reagent. D ribose in itself is a hemiacetal and in equilibrium with the pyranose 3 . In aqueous solution ribose is 75 pyranose and 25 furanose and a different acetal 4 is formed. Preferences Preparative Carbohydrate Chemistry Calinaud, P. Gelas, J. in . Hanessian, S. Ed. Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York, 1997. ISBN 0 8247 9802 3 Category Organic reactions Category Carbohydrate chemistry ... more details
Carbohydrate dehydrogenases are a group of dehydrogenase enzyme s that occur in many organisms and facilitate the conversion from a carbohydrate to an aldehyde , lactone , or ketose . An example includes L gulonolactone oxidase . They are categorized under Enzyme Commission number EC number 1.1. More specifically, they are in three subcodes 1, 2, and 99, categorized as follows EC 1.1.1 With Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide NAD or NADP as Electron acceptor acceptor EC 1.1.2 With a cytochrome as acceptor EC 1.1.99 With other acceptors External links MeshName Carbohydrate Dehydrogenases Alcohol oxidoreductases enzyme stub Category Enzymes ... more details
Merge from Heparan sulfate 2 O sulfotransferase Heparan sulfate 6 O sulfotransferase discuss Talk Carbohydrate sulfotransferase Merger proposal date May 2011 Pfam box Symbol Sulfotransfer 2 Name Sulfotransferase image width caption Pfam PF03567 InterPro IPR005331 SMART Prosite SCOP TCDB OPM family OPM protein PDB Carbohydrate sulfotransferases are sulfotransferase enzymes that transfer sulfate to carbohydrate groups in glycoprotein s and glycolipid s. These include Carbohydrate sulfotransferases 8 and 9, which transfer sulfate to position 4 of non reducing N acetylgalactosamine GalNAc residues in both N glycans and O glycans ref name PUB00033954 cite journal author Fukuda M, Hiraoka N, Hindsgaul O, Misra A, Belot F title R in both N and O glycans journal Glycobiology volume 11 issue 6 pages year 2001 pmid 11445554 doi 10.1093 glycob 11.6.495 ref . They function in the biosynthesis of glycoprotein hormones lutropin and thyrotropin, by mediating sulfation of their carbohydrate structures. Carbohydrate sulfotransferase 10, which transfers sulfate to position 3 of the terminal glucuronic acid in both protein and lipid linked oligosaccharides ref name PUB00033955 cite journal author Ong E, Fukuda M, Yeh JC, Ding Y, Hindsgaul O title Expression cloning of a human sulfotransferase that directs the synthesis of the HNK 1 glycan on the neural cell adhesion molecule and glycolipids journal J. Biol. Chem. volume 273 issue 9 pages year 1998 pmid 9478973 doi 10.1074 jbc.273.9.5190 ref . It directs the biosynthesis of the HNK 1 carbohydrate structure, a sulfated glucuronyl lactosaminyl residue carried by many neural recognition molecules, which is involved in cell interactions during ontogenetic development and in synaptic plasticity in the adult. Carbohydrate sulfotransferases 11 13, which catalyze the transfer of sulfate to position 4 of the GalNAc residue of chondroitin ref name .... Some, thought not all, of these enzymes also transfer sulfate to dermatan. Carbohydrate sulfotransferase ... more details
Carbohydrate loading , commonly referred to as carbo loading or carb loading , is a strategy used by endurance athletes, such as marathon sport marathon runners, to maximize the storage of glycogen or energy in the muscles. Carbohydrate loading is also used in healthcare to optimise the condition of patients prior to surgery. ref Pre operative oral carbohydrate loading in colorectal surgery a randomized controlled trial doi 10.1111 j.1463 1318.2006.00965.x ref Carbohydrate loading is generally recommended for endurance events lasting longer than 90 minutes. ref cite web title 5 url http www.powerbar.com articles 224 carbohydrate loading.aspx ref For many endurance athletes the foods of choice for carbo loading are those of low Glycemic index glycemic indices due to their minimal effect on serum glucose levels. Low glycemic foods commonly include fruits, vegetables, whole wheat pasta and grains. Because of this, many marathoners and triathlon participants have large pasta dinners the night before the race. Since muscles also extensively utilize amino acids when functioning within aerobic limits, meals should include adequate protein on top of carbohydrates. ref name Martini cite book title Human Anatomy last Martini first Frederic H. last2 Timmons first2 Michael J. last3 Tallitsch first3 Robert B. edition 6 year 2008 publisher Benjamin Cummings location isbn 9780321500427 page 292 ... for increased carbohydrate intake to about 70 of total calories and decreased training for three ... high intensity workout such as a few minutes of sprinting then consumes nowrap 12 g of carbohydrate ... storage. ref name carbo1 Transient hypoglycemia Carbohydrate ingestion less than 2 hours ... The composition of carbohydrates in the athlete s diet during carbohydrate loading is as important ... , but it is ineffective at raising muscle glycogen levels which is the objective of carbohydrate ... of Carbohydrate Loading ref Consequently, sources of high fructose carbohydrates, such as fruit and sweets ... more details
Carbohydrate synthesis is a sub field of organic chemistry concerned specifically with the generation of natural and unnatural carbohydrate structures. This can include the synthesis of monosaccharide residues or structures containing more than one monosaccharide, known as oligosaccharides . Background Generally speaking, carbohydrates can be classified into two groups, simple sugars and complex carbohydrates. Simple sugars, also called monosaccharides, are carbohydrates which can not be converted into smaller sugars by hydrolysis. ref John McMurry. Organic Chemistry , 5th ed. Brooks Cole. 2000 , pp 1031 ref When two or more monosaccharide units are connected to one another via a glycoside linkage, complex carbohydrates are formed. Complex carbohydrates, according to the different number of monosaccharide units, can be classed into three groups, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. A disaccharide is formed from two monosaccharides. Oligosaccharides can be formed by a small number of monosaccharides linked together. Higher oligosaccharides are called polysaccharides. It is now well known that glycoconjugates play an indispensable role in many biological processes. These biological processes in which carbohydrates are involved are typically associated not to monosaccharides, but to oligosaccharides structures of glycoconjugates. Therefore, the oligosaccharide synthesis becomes more and more important in studying the biological activities. ref Daniel E. Levy & P ter F gedi. The organic chemistry of sugars Taylor & Francis 2006 , pp 181 197 ref Monosaccharide synthesis Empty section date July 2010 Oligosaccharide synthesis Oligosaccharides have diverse structures. The number of monosaccharides, ring size, the different anomer ic stereochemistry, and the existence of the branched chain sugars all contribute to the amazing complexity of the oligosaccharide structures ... Carbohydrate chemistry References reflist Category Carbohydrate chemistry Category Carbohydrates ... more details
refimprove date January 2012 Carbohydrate conformation refers to the overall three dimensional structure adopted by a carbohydrate saccharide molecule as a result of the through bond and through space physical forces it experiences arising from its molecular structure . The physical forces that dictate the three dimensional shapes of all molecules here, of all monosaccharide , oligosaccharide , and polysaccharide molecules are sometimes summarily captured by such terms as steric interactions and stereoelectronic effects see below . Saccharide and other chemical conformations can be reasonably shown using two dimentional structure representations that follow set conventions these capture for a trained viewer an understanding of the three dimensional structure via structure drawings see organic chemistry article, and 3D Representations section in molecular geometry article they are also represented by stereogram s on the two dimensional page, and increasingly using 3D display technologies on computer monitors. Formally and quantitatively, conformation is captured by description of a molecule s angles e.g., sets of three sequential atoms bond angles and four sequential atoms torsion angle s, dihedral angles , where the locations and angular directions of nonbonding electron s lone pair electron s must sometimes also be taken into account. Conformations adopted by saccharide molecules in response to the physical forces arising from their bonding and nonbonding electrons, modified by the molecule s interactions with its aqueous or other solvent milieu, strongly influence their reactivity with and recognition by other molecules processes which in turn can alter conformation . Chemical transformations and biological signalling mediated by conformation dependent molecular recognition .... See also Anomeric effect Carbohydrate Pyranose Furanose Monosaccharide Polysaccharide References reflist Carbohydrates Category Carbohydrates Category Carbohydrate chemistry ... more details
All carbohydrates absorbed in the small intestine must be hydrolyzed to monosaccharides prior to absorption. The digestion of starch begins with the action of salivary alpha amylase ptyalin, although its activity is slight in comparison with that of pancreatic amylase in the small intestine. Amylase hydrolyzes starch to alpha dextrin, which are then digested by gluco amylase alpha dextrinases to maltose and maltotriose. The products of digestion of alpha amylase and alpha dextrinase, along with dietary disaccharides are hydrolyzed to their corresponding monosaccharides by enzymes maltase, isomaltase, sucrase and lactase present in the brush border of small intestine. In the typical Western diet, digestion and absorption of carbohydrates is fast and takes place usually in the upper small intestine. However, when the diet contains carbohydrates not easily digestible, digestion and absorption take place mainly in the ileal portion of the intestine. Digestion of food continues while simplest elements are absorbed. The absorption of most digested food occurs in the small intestine through the brush border of the epithelium covering the villi small hair like structure . It is not a simple diffusion of substances, but is active and requires energy use by the epithelial cells. During the phase of carbohydrate absorption, fructose is transported by a transporter of fructose into the intestinal cell s cytosol, glucose and galactose competes with other Na transporter required for operation. From the cytosol, monosaccharides pass into the capillaries by simple or facilitated diffusion. Carbohydrates that are not digested in the small intestine, including resistant starch foods such as potatoes, beans, oats, wheat flour, as well as several non polisacac ridos oligosaccharides and starch, are digested in a variable when they reach the large intestine. The bacterial flora metabolize these compounds in the absence of oxygen. This produces gases hydrogen, carbon dioxide and methane ... more details
Wikify date December 2011 Sleep and Metabolism Sleep is important in regulating metabolism. There are non REM and REM sleep. REM is Rapid Eye Movement. Non REM sleep has four stages where the third and fourth stages are considered Slow Wave Sleep SWS . SWS is considered deep sleep, when metabolism is least active. ref name autogenerated1 cite journal last Sharma first Sunil coauthors Kavuru, Mani title Sleep and Metabolism Overview journal International Journal of Endocrinology date 2 year 2010 month August url http ncbi.nlm.gov pmc articles PMC2929498 accessdate November 29, 2011 ref Metabolism involves two biochemical processes that occur in living organisms. The first is anabolism, which means the build up of molecules. The second is catabolism, the break down of molecules. These two processes work to regulate the amount of energy the body uses to maintain itself. During non REM sleep, metabolic rate and brain temperature are lowered to deal with damages that may have occurred during time of wakefulness. ref name autogenerated1 Normal Metabolism After eating, the pancreas releases insulin. Insulin signals muscle and fat cells to absorb the glucose from the food. Blood glucose would then lower down to normal state. ref name autogenerated2 cite news last Walker first Matthew title Sleep Deprivation I Immune Function and Metabolism accessdate October 10, 2011 date October 10, 2011 ref Sleep Deprivation and Type 2 Diabetes Insulin Resistant Metabolism The normal amount of insulin does not signal muscle and fat cells to absorb glucose. Because of the high level of glucose, the pancreas ... in glucose metabolism that resemble that of type 2 diabetes patients. When the participants were tested ... a high carbohydrate meals. The secretion of insulin and the body s response to insulin decrease by 30 ... and Appetite Control Sleep plays a vital role in regulating metabolism and appetite. When sleep deprived ... leptin level. Subjects also preferred high carbohydrate foods sweets, salty food and starchy ... more details
Lipid metabolism refers to the processes that involve the intercourse and degradation of lipid s. The types of lipids involved include Bile salt s Cholesterol s Eicosanoid s Glycolipid s Ketone bodies Fatty acids see also fatty acid metabolism Phospholipid s Sphingolipid s Steroid see also steroidogenesis Triacylglycerol s fats see also lipolysis and lipogenesis External links MeshName Lipid metabolism Ophardt, Charles E. 2003 http www.elmhurst.edu chm vchembook 622overview.html Lipid Catabolism Summary . Virtual Chembook. Elmhurst College. King, Michael W. http themedicalbiochemistrypage.org lipid synthesis.html Fatty Acid, Omega 3 and Omega 6 Fatty Acid, Triglyceride, and Phospholipid Synthesis and Metabolism . The Medical Biochemistry Page. http www.theheart.org condition lipid metabolic.do Breaking news and clinical trials about Lipid and MetabolismMetabolism Lipid metabolism enzymes Eicosanoid metabolism enzymes Glycolipid sphingolipid metabolism enzymes Ketone and cholesterol metabolism enzymes Category Lipids Category Metabolism biochemistry stub sr Lipidni metabolizam ... more details
to optimize the efficiency of the D xylose metabolism pathway. References reflist 2 Carbohydratemetabolism ... metabolism have revealed that limiting the speed of this step may be beneficial to the efficiency ... NADPH during metabolism, limiting this step will help to correct the already evident imbalance ... laboratory strains do not always reflect their metabolism abilities on raw xylose products in nature ... more details
Image Streptomycin structure.png thumb 120px right Streptomycin , an important antibiotic drug produced by Streptomyces bacteria Secondary metabolism also called special metabolism is a term for pathways and small molecule products of metabolism that are not absolutely required for the survival of the organism . Examples of the products include antibiotics and pigment s. To distinguish non secondary ordinary metabolism, the term basic metabolism is sometimes used. Secondary metabolite s are produced by microbe s, plants, fungi and animals, but not by all of them. Important secondary metabolites main Secondary metabolite Antibiotic s, such as streptomycin and penicillin Pigment s, such as delphinidin References Unreferenced date June 2008 External links http www.biologie.uni hamburg.de b online e20 20.htm Secondary metabolism in plants Category Metabolism biochemistry stub fi Sekundaarimetabolia es Metabolito secundario ... more details
Unreferenced date December 2009 Cysteine metabolism refers to the biological pathways that consume or create cysteine . The pathways of different amino acids and other metabolites interweave and overlap to creating complex systems. Human cysteine metabolism In human cysteine metabolism, L cysteine is consumed in several ways as shown below. L cysteine is also consumed in methionine and glutathione metabolism as well as pantothenate CoA biosynthesis. class wikitable style text align center L cysteine consumption pathways enzyme product cysteine dioxygenase 3 sulfino L alanine or cysteine sulfinic acid amino acid racemase D cysteine cysteine lyase L cysteate cysteine tRNA ligase L cysteinyl tRNA sup Cys sup cystine reductase L cystine cysteine transaminase 3 mercapto pyruvate L cysteine is the product of several processes as well. In addition to the reactions below, L cysteine is also a product of glycine , serine , and threonine metabolism. class wikitable style text align center L cysteine production pathways starting chemical enzyme O acetyl L serine cysteine synthase L cystine glutathione cystine transhydrogenase pyruvate cystathionine lyase 3 mercapto pyruvate cysteine transaminase See also D cysteine desulfhydrase Sulphur metabolism DEFAULTSORT Cysteine Metabolism Category Sulfur metabolism Category Sulfur amino acids ja ... more details
Merge Antoni K pi ski date December 2009 Information metabolism is a psychology psychological theory of human social interaction s based on information processing Citation needed date February 2007 . It was developed in Eastern Europe by Antoni K pi ski . In the late 1970s, Lithuania n psychologist Au ra Augustinavi i t created socionics , a personality typology based on the typology of Carl Jung and the theory of information metabolism of Antoni K pi ski , a Poland Polish psychiatrist interested in schizophrenia . According to Augustinavi i t , humans can be classified in terms of types of information processing , or information metabolism . Psychological features such as attention, interests, memory and motivation are components of this theory of information metabolism. This theory of information metabolism is built upon an analogy to biological metabolism . According to this analogy, information that arrives as signals from outside an organism are available for information metabolism just as food is available for energy metabolism. The brain is the key information metabolism system. The brain and information metabolism deal with a two way flow of signals metabolism of input signals results in the production of output. Just as enzymes can constructively interact only with structurally specific substrate molecules, brains can only constructively metabolize information that is correctly ... metabolism, Augustinavi i t created a mathematical theory of thinking. Dubious date December 2009 References Bielecki, A. 2000 A mathematical model of Kepinski s information metabolism model ... Information metabolism as a model of consciousness. International Journal of Neuroscience , Vol. 68 ... Journal of Psychosomatics, Vol. 41, pp. 4 10. Kokoszka, A. 1999 Information metabolism ... 169 10. Kokoszka, A. 2001 Mental organization according to the metabolism of information model and its ... s information metabolism. Carnot s principle and reformation theory. International Journal of Neuroscience ... more details
Protein metabolism denotes the various biochemistry biochemical processes responsible for the synthesis of protein synthesis proteins and amino acid synthesis amino acids , and the breakdown of proteins and other large molecules, too by protein catabolism catabolism . Protein synthesis Main article Protein biosynthesis . Protein biosynthesis relies on four processes amino acid synthesis RNA synthesis Transcription genetics transcription Translation genetics translation Protein anabolism is the process by which protein are formed from amino acids aka anabolic amino acid synthesis . Protein breakdown See Proteolysis Protein catabolism is the process by which proteins are broken down to their amino acids. This is also called proteolysis . This can be followed by further amino acid degradation . Metabolism DEFAULTSORT Protein Metabolism Category MetabolismMetabolism stub cs B lkovina Metabolismus b lkovin sr Proteinski metabolizam th ... more details
Recycling Industrial metabolism was first proposed by Robert Ayres scientist Robert Ayres as the whole integrated collection of physical processes that convert raw materials and energy, plus labour, into finished products and wastes... ref Ayres, R.U., 1994. Industrial metabolism Theory and policy. In Ayres, R.U., Simonis, U.K. Eds. , http www.unu.edu unupress unupbooks 80841e 80841E00.htm Industrial Metabolism Restructuring for Sustainable Development . United Nations University Press, Tokyo, pp. 3 20. ref The goal is to study the flow of materials through society in order to better understand the sources and causes of emissions, along with the effects of the linkages in our socio technological systems. ref S. Anderberg 1998 , Industrial metabolism and linkages between economics, ethics, and the environment , Ecological Economics , 24, pp 311 320 ref See also Portal Sustainable development Anthropogenic metabolism Energy accounting Industrial ecology Material flow accounting Material flow analysis Books http www.unu.edu unupress unupbooks 80841e 80841E00.htm Industrial Metabolism Restructuring for Sustainable Development Sources Reflist Industrial Ecology Category Industrial ecology Category Sustainability Category Environment stubs Sustainability stub ... more details
Urban Metabolism is a scientific modelling model to facilitate the description and analysis of the flows .... First used as an exploration and comparison modeling tool by Abel Wolman in The metabolism of Cities . The use of the Urban Metabolism model offers benefits to studies of the sustainability of cities ... model. History Karl Marx may have been the first to discuss urban metabolism. He used metabolism ... 1883 . He advocated that urban metabolism becomes a power in itself like capitalism , and will control ..., the associated producers, govern the human metabolism with nature in a rational way, bringing it under ... as living machines with metabolism so much so that his initiative was not accepted. In 1965, when Abel Wolman, a sanitary engineer, used urban metabolism in his A Typical American City study. He defined urban metabolism as, all the materials and commodities needed to sustain a city s inhabitants ... pollution. The definition was updated again in 2007 in The changing metabolism of cities by Kennedy et al 2007 , which updated the definition of urban metabolism to, the sum total of the technical ... of waste. ref Kennedy, et al. 2007 The changing metabolism of cities. ref Uses The concept of urban metabolism has been used to describe the resource consumption and waste generation of the cities ... organism analogies may help in understanding cities including references to metabolism were made by the Chicago ... of the term has been the British educator and author Herbert Girardet . More recently the metabolism .... ref Gandy, M. 2004 . Rethinking urban metabolism Water, space and the modern city. City , http ... reflist References Newman, P. W. G. 1999 . Sustainability and cities extending the metabolism model ... of the Environment Report 1996 CSIRO. Wolman, A. 1965 . The metabolism of cities. Scientific American ... Urban Metabolism Encyclopedia of the Earth article http www.eoearth.org article Urban metabolism Urban Metabolism DEFAULTSORT Urban Metabolism Category Impact assessment Category Industrial ecology ... more details
Unreferenced date November 2006 Flux , or metabolic flux is the rate of turnover of molecules through a metabolic pathway . Flux is regulated by the enzymes involved in a pathway. Within cell biology cell s, regulation of flux is vital for all metabolic pathways to regulate the metabolic pathway s activity under different conditions. Flux is therefore of great interest in metabolic network modelling , where it is analysed via flux balance analysis . DEFAULTSORT Flux Biochemistry Category Metabolism Metabolism stub Biochem stub ... more details
Infobox Journal title Cell Metabolism discipline Physiology Molecular Biology publisher Cell Press country United States USA frequency Monthly history 2005 to present openaccess After 12 months website http www.cellmetabolism.org ISSN 1550 4131 Cell Metabolism , launched in January 2005, is one of the newer titles in the Cell Press family. The journal focuses on physiology, with an emphasis on understanding the molecular basis of how the body self regulates in the face of change, and how disturbances in these balances can lead to disease. Advances in these fields take on a special importance given the increasing prevalence of obesity, diabetes, hypertension, and related maladies metabolic diseases in the developed world. Created in response to what top scientists saw as a growing need for a specialized journal in this field, Cell Metabolism is run by in house editorial and production teams with full responsibility for selecting and preparing content for publication. Further Information Journal published on a monthly basis The 2007 Thomson Reuters Impact Factor for Cell Metabolism is 17.148 External links http www.cellmetabolism.org www.CellMetabolism.org Reed Elsevier Category Biology journals Category Cell Press academic journals Category Publications established in 2005 fr Cell Metabolism ... more details
Microbial metabolism is the means by which a microbe obtains the energy and nutrients e.g. carbon it needs to live and reproduce. Microbes use many different types of metabolism metabolic strategies and species ... changing the link if you change the name of this section. Thanks. Types of microbial metabolism ... to photolithoautotrophy with hydrogen Heterotrophic microbial metabolism Most microbes are heterotrophic ... or parasite s or find in dead organic matter of all kind saprophage s . Microbial metabolism ..., prokaryotic heterotrophic metabolism is much more versatile than that of eukaryotic organisms ... also called Embden Meyerhoff Parnas EMP pathway for sugar metabolism and the citric acid cycle ... and the citric acid cycle. A well studied example is sugar metabolism via the KDPG pathway keto ... organelle that is the site of eukaryotic energy metabolism, arose from the endosymbiosis of a bacterium ... metabolism that uses organic compound organic carbon instead of oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor ... Lactic acid lactate from excess NADH, although this is not the major form of metabolism as it is in fermentative ... be used for metabolism, all of which lack carbon carbon bonds. Examples of methylotrophs include the bacteria ... metabolism, refers to the pairing of multiple species to achieve a chemical reaction that, on its ... Acetogenesis is a type of microbial metabolism that uses hydrogen H sub 2 sub as an electron donor ... Chemolithotrophy is a type of metabolism where energy is obtained from the oxidation of inorganic ... see Microbial metabolism Energy for reduction above . In all cases the energy liberated is transferred ... last9 Kuenen first9 J. Gijs ref This form of metabolism occurs in members of the Planctomycetes e.g. ... N sub 2 sub H sub 4 sub rocket fuel is produced as an intermediate during anammox metabolism ... to produce Adenosine triphosphate ATP and organic compound s such as carbohydrate s, lipid s, and protein ... from a lineage of the Cyanobacteria, the general principles of metabolism in these endosymbiont ... more details
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