Lexicographicpreferences lexicographical order based on the order of amount of each good describe comparative preferences where an agent economics economic agent infinitely prefers one good X to another Y . Thus if offered several bundles of goods, the agent will choose the bundle that offers the most X, no matter how much Y there is. Only when there is a tie of Xs between bundles will the agent start comparing Ys. For example, if for a given bundle X Y Z an agent orders his preferences according to the rule X Y Z, then the bundles 5 3 3 , 5 1 6 , 3,5,3 would be ordered, from most to least preferred 5 3 3 5 1 6 3 5 3 Even though the first option contains fewer total goods than the second option, it is preferred because it has more Y. Note that the number of X s is the same, and so the agent is comparing Y s. Even though the third option has the same total goods as the first option, the first option is still preferred. Even though the third option has far more Y than the second option, the second option is still preferred because it has slightly more X. Implications If all agents have the same lexicographicpreferences, then general equilibrium cannot exist because agents won t sell to each other as long as price of the less preferred is more than 0 number zero . But if the price of the less wanted is zero, then all agents want an infinite amount of the good. Equilibrium cannot be attained. Lexicographicpreferences can still exist with general equilibrium. For example, Different people have different bundles of lexicographicpreferences such that different individuals value items in different orders. Some, but not all people have lexicographicpreferences. Lexicographicpreferences extend only to a certain quantity of the good. Lexicographicpreferences are the classical example of rational preferences that are not representable by a Utility Utility functions utility function , if amounts can be any non negative real value. If there were such a function U then, e.g. ... more details
In mathematics , a lexicographical or lexicographic product may be formed of graph mathematics graph s &ndash see lexicographic product of graphs . order theory order s &ndash see lexicographical order . disambig Category Mathematical terminology ... more details
Lexicographic codes or lexicodes are greedily generated error correcting code s with remarkably good properties. They were produced independently by Levenshtein ref V.I. Levenstein. A class of systematic codes. Soviet Math. Dokl, 1 1 368 371, 1960. ref and Conway and Sloane ref J.H. Conway and N.J.A Sloane. Lexicographic codes error correcting codes from game theory. IEEE Transactions on Information Theory, 32 337 348, 1986. ref and are known to be linear code linear over some finite field s. Construction A lexicode of minimum distance d and length n over a finite field is generated by starting with the all zero vector and iteratively adding the next vector in lexicographic order of minimum Hamming distance d from the vectors added so far. As an example, the length 3 lexicode of minimum distance 2 would consist of the vectors marked by an X in the following example class wikitable Vector In code? 000 X 001 010 011 X 100 101 X 110 X 111 Since lexicodes are linear, they can also be constructed by means of their Basis linear algebra basis . ref Ari Trachtenberg , Designing Lexicographic Codes with a Given Trellis Complexity, IEEE Transactions on Information Theory, January 2002. ref Notes references External links http burtleburtle.net bob math lexicode.html Bob Jenkins table of binary lexicodes http ipsit.bu.edu comp.html On line generator for lexicodes and their variants SloanesRef sequencenumber A075928 name List of codewords in binary lexicode with Hamming distance 4 written as decimal numbers. http ipsit.bu.edu phdthesis html phdthesis html.html Error Correcting Codes on Graphs Lexicodes, http www.research.att.com njas sequences Trellises and Factor Graphs Category Error detection and correction ... more details
Unreferenced date December 2009 A lexicographic error is an inaccurate entry in a dictionary . Such problems, because they undercut the intention of providing authoritative guidance to readers and writers, attract special attention. An early English language example was the definition of pastern as the knee of a horse in Samuel Johnson Dr. Johnson s famed 18th sup century Dictionary of the English Language . That would suit the word fetlock , but the pastern is in fact a long portion of the leg immediately below the fetlock. When a woman asked him why he had made the error, Johnson, according to James Boswell Boswell , replied, Ignorance, Madam, pure ignorance. In the 1930s, Webster s Dictionary Webster s New International Dictionary, Second Edition accidentally documented, for four years, a supposed word dord , whose only basis was a clerical error by Merriam Webster the publisher . The first edition 1987 of the Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary contained an entry for a verb hink, which it said was conjugated hinks, hinking, hinked and which it defined as follows If you hink , you think hopefully and unrealistically about something. The entry is a ghost word &mdash included by the editors to trap plagiarists. The wording is the result of an in house joke. However, some reviewers took it seriously, speculating for example that it is clearly an error for think . The word was removed from later editions. In the early 21st century, the online and CD ROM editions of the Macmillan English Dictionary gave two different spoken readings of the headword for the entry George, St. the PATRON SAINT of England the American reading was the correct Saint George, but the British reading was George Street. Presumably the British narrator had been given a list of words to read and the comma after George was either missing or overlooked. Although dictionaries are often expected ... than none, and the best cannot be expected to go quite true. Lexicography DEFAULTSORT Lexicographic ... more details
In economics, an agent s preferences are said to be weakly monotonic if, given a consumption bundle math x math , the agent prefers all consumption bundles math y math that have more of every good. That is, math y gg x math implies math y succ x math . An agent s preferences are said to be strongly monotonic if, given a consumption bundle math x math , the agent prefers all consumption bundles math y math that have more of at least one good. That is, math y geq x math and math y neq x math imply math y succ x math . This definition defines monotonic increasing preferences. Monotonic decreasing preferences can often be defined to be compatible with this definition. For instance, an agent s preferences for pollution may be monotonic decreasing less pollution is better . In this case, the agent s preferences for lack of pollution are monotonic increasing. Much of consumer theory relies on a weaker assumption, local nonsatiation . An example of preferences which are weakly monotonic but not strongly monotonic are those represented by a Leontief Utilities Leontief utility function . References Andreu Mas Colell Mas Colell, Andreu , Whinston, Michael D., Green, Jerry R. Microeconomic Theory. Oxford University Press. 1995. See also Monotonic function Monotonicity in calculus and analysis Strict Category Microeconomics Category Consumer theory microeconomics stub ru uk ... more details
refimprove date December 2011 In economics, a consumer is said to have homothetic preferences when its preferences can be represented by a homothetic utility function. ref cite book last Varian first Hal title Microeconomic Analysis year 1992 pages 147 ref Both homogenous function homogenous and homothetic preferences are common functional forms used to represent consumer preferences when analyzing the demand for Consumption economics consumption of various goods and services . A homothetic function is a monotonic transformation of a function which is homogenous function homogenous of degree 1. However, since ordinal utility functions are only defined up to a monotonic transformation , there is little distinction between the two concepts in practice. In a model where competitive consumers optimize homothetic utility functions subject to a budget constraint, the ratios of goods demanded by consumers will depend only on relative prices, not on income or scale. Intratemporally vs. Intertemporally homothetic preferences Assuming homothetic individual preferences over goods consumed in the same time period means that consumers with different incomes but facing the same prices will demand goods in the same proportions. Models of modern macroeconomics and public finance often assume the constant relative risk aversion form for within period utility also called the power utility power or isoelastic form . The reason is that, in combination with additivity over time, this gives homothetic intertemporal preferences and this homotheticity is of considerable analytic convenience for example, it allows for the analysis of steady states in growth models . These assumptions imply that the elasticity of intertemporal substitution , and its inverse, risk aversion fluctuation risk aversion , are constant rich and poor decision makers are equally averse to proportional fluctuations in consumption ... model with heterogeneous agents. reflist DEFAULTSORT Homothetic Preferences Category Utility Category ... more details
Unreferenced date June 2008 Endogenous preferences are preference s that cannot be taken as given, but are affected by individual internal responses to the external state of affairs. They are interdependent, in part determined by social institutions, marketed advertisement, and subject to learning experience and observation and habit formation past experience . See also Acquired taste economics stub Category Economics ... more details
noreferences date November 2007 Infobox Software name System Preferences logo Image System Preferences icon.png 64px screenshot File SystemPreferences.png 250px caption System Preferences application in Mac OS X Lion . developer Apple Inc. latest release version 11.0 latest release date July 20, 2011 operating system Mac OS X genre Computer configuration Settings license Proprietary software Proprietary Deleted image removed Image Preference Pane 10.4.png 90px thumb right Preference Pane from Mac OS X 10.4. Commented out because image was deleted Image Screen Saver 10.4.png 90px thumb right Screen Saver from Mac OS X 10.4. System Preferences is an Application software application included with the Mac OS X operating system that allows users to modify various system settings which are divided into separate preference pane s. The System Preferences application was introduced in the first version of Mac OS X to replace the control panel Mac OS control panel that was included in previous versions ... in System Preferences, were separate applications that were accessed through the Apple menu . Mac ... but subsections of the System Preferences application. By default, System Preferences organizes preference panes into several categories. In the latest version of System Preferences, included with Mac ... to sort preference panes alphabetically. Originally, System Preferences included a customizable toolbar ... OS X v10.3 , a corresponding preference pane was added to System Preferences. This was replaced ... and processor usage. Mission Control Mac OS X Mission Control changes the preferences for the Mission ... settings MobileMe used to set preferences for the user s MobileMe account and iDisk. Mouse computing Mouse set mouse preferences. If using a Magic Mouse , provides preferences for the multitouch gestures ... speech settings. Spotlight software Spotlight set the preferences for the Spotlight system wide search ... Preferences ... more details
In the Color psychology psychology of color , color preferences are the tendency for an individual or a group to prefer some color s over others, including a favorite color . Introduction In general, people have a connection with certain colors due to their experiences with objects of those colors. A person who has positive experiences with a favorite purple stuffed animal as a kid will generally like the color purple even later into life. This works in a negative manner as well. In a study with Berkley students, they found that students with school spirit s favorite colors were blue and gold their school s colors . They also found that they did not like the colors red and white, which are the colors of their Stanford rivals. ref cite web last Sohn first Emily title Color Preferences Determined by Experience url http news.discovery.com human colors preferences evolution style.html publisher Discovery News accessdate 2 October 2011 ref Children s color preferences The age when infants begin showing a preference for color is at about 12 weeks old. Generally, children prefer the colors red ... stage. Color preferences tend to change as people age. Hue, value, and saturation are the three main components of a color. ref Read, M., & Upington, D. 2009 . Young Children s Color Preferences in the Interior ... 0311 6 ref Color Preferences in Different Societies Favoritism of colors varies widely. Oftentimes societal ... preferences. In different countries, color preference vary. In China, red indicates luck, while ... date December 2011 Citation last Crozier year 1999 first W. Ray title The meanings of colour preferences ... Color preferences according to gender and sexual orientation journal Personality and Individual Differences ... Study of Color Meanings and Preferences journal Journal of International Marketing volume 8 issue 4 ... spontaneous color preferences are not due to adult like brightness variations journal Visual ... Prediction of infants spontaneous color preferences journal Vision Research volume 47 issue 10 pages ... more details
Legacy preferences or legacy admission is a type of preference given by educational institutions to certain applicants on the basis of their familial relationship to alumni of that institution. Students so admitted are referred to as legacies or legacy students . This preference is most common in American universities and colleges ref citation author Daniel Golden chapterurl http www.tcf.org publications education Legacy ch4.pdf title Affirmative Action for the Rich chapter Chapter 4 An Analytic Survey of Legacy Preference year 2010 ISBN 978 0870785184 ref and emerged after World War I, primarily in response to the resulting immigrant influx ref cite book title Color and Money How Rich White Kids Are Winning the War over College Affirmative Action author Peter G. Schmidt isbn 978 1403976017 year 2007 ref . The Ivy League institutions are estimated to admit 10 to 30 of each entering class using this factor. ref cite news url http www.economist.com displaystory.cfm?story id 2333345 work The Economist title The curse of nepotism date January 8, 2004 ref ref name test http www.thecrimson.com ... preferences in comparison to other programmes At some schools, legacy preferences have an effect ... title The Opportunity Cost of Admission Preferences at Elite Universities author Thomas J. Espenshade ... that legacy preferences are a way to indirectly sell university placement. Opponents accuse these programs ... Analysis of the Impact of Legacy Preferences on Alumni Giving at Top Universities year 2010 ISBN 978 ... or opposing both affirmative action and legacy preferences simultaneously. For example, the conservative ... of all non academic preferences also point out that many European universities, including highly ... , do not use any racial, legacy, or athletic preferences in admissions decisions. ref cite news title ... legacy preferences in government schools, which argues that they violate the Nobility Clause of the constitution ... Preferences in Public School Admissions , Washington University Law Review , Volume 84, page 1375 ... more details
In economics , convex preferences refer to a property of an individual s ordering of various outcomes which roughly corresponds to the idea that averages are better than the extremes . The concept roughly corresponds to the concept of marginal utility Diminishing marginal utility diminishing marginal utility but uses modern theory to represent the concept without requiring the use of utility function s. Comparable to the greater than or equal to Order theory Partially ordered sets ordering relation math geq math for real numbers, the notation math succeq math below can be translated as is at least as good as in Preference economics preference satisfaction . Use x , y , and z to denote three consumption bundles combinations of various quantities of various goods . Formally, a preference relation P on the consumption set X is Convex set convex if for any math x, y, z in X math where math y succeq x math and math z succeq x math , it is the case that math theta y 1 theta z succeq x math for any math theta in 0,1 math . That is, the preference ordering P is convex if for any two goods bundles that are each viewed as being at least as good as a third bundle, a weighted average of the two bundles is also viewed as being at least as good as the third bundle. Moreover, math P math is strictly convex if for any math x, y, z in X math where math y succeq x math , math z succeq x math , and math y neq z math , it is also true that math theta y 1 theta z succ x math for any math theta in 0,1 math here math succ math can be translated as is better than in preference satisfaction . Thus the preference ordering P is strictly convex if for any two distinct goods bundles that are each viewed ... convex shaped indifference curve s displays convex preferences Given a convex indifference curve ... is a convex set . Convex preferences with their associated convex indifference mapping arise from ... of preferences. References Hal R. Varian Intermediate Microeconomics A Modern Approach . New ... more details
Image Graph lexicographic product.svg thumb 300px The lexicographic product of graphs. In graph theory , the lexicographic product or graph composition math G H of graphs mvar G and mvar H is a graph such that the vertex set of math G H is the cartesian product math V G V H and any two vertices math u , v and math x , y are adjacent in math G H if and only if either mvar u is adjacent with mvar x in mvar G or math 1 u x and mvar v is adjacent with mvar y in mvar H . If the edge relations of the two graphs are order theory order relation s, then the edge relation of their lexicographic product is the corresponding lexicographical order lexicographic order . The lexicographic product was first studied by harvs first Felix last Hausdorff authorlink Felix Hausdorff year 1914 txt . As harvtxt Feigenbaum Sch ffer 1986 showed, the problem of recognizing whether a graph is a lexicographic product is equivalent in complexity to the graph isomorphism problem . Properties The lexicographic product is in general Commutativity noncommutative math G H H G . However it satisfies a distributivity distributive law with respect to disjoint union math 1 A B C A C B C . In addition it satisfies an identity with respect to complement graph theory complementation math 1 C G H C G C H . The independence number of a lexicographic product may be easily calculated from that of its factors harv Geller Stahl 1975 math 1 G H G H . The clique number of a lexicographic product is as well multiplicative math 1 G H G H . References citation last1 Feigenbaum first1 J. last2 Sch ffer first2 A. A. year 1986 title Recognizing composite graphs is equivalent to testing graph isomorphism journal SIAM Journal on Computing volume 15 pages 619 627 mr 0837609 doi 10.1137 0215045 issue 2 . citation last1 Geller first1 D. last2 Stahl first2 S. title The chromatic number and other functions of the lexicographic ... year 2000 isbn 0 471 37039 8 External links mathworld title Graph Lexicographic Product urlname GraphLexicographicProduct ... more details
Lexicographic information cost is a new concept within the field of lexicography . The term refers to the difficulties and inconveniences that the user of a dictionary believes or feels are associated with consulting a particular dictionary or dictionary article. For example, the extensive use of abbreviations in articles in order to save space may annoy the user, because it is often difficult to read such condensed texts and understanding the abbreviations, thereby increasing the lexicographic information costs. The important point in connection with lexicographic information costs is the relation between the information costs anticipated by the user and the information value the user expects to gain from consulting a dictionary or dictionary article. The more easily a user can navigate a dictionary and its articles, the lower the information costs and, hopefully, the more content with the dictionary the user will be. The higher the information costs of a dictionary, the more dissatisfied the user will be. There are two general types of lexicographic information costs search costs are the efforts required by users when searching for something in dictionaries, i.e. , the look up activities required to find what they are looking for and comprehension costs, which are the efforts required by users to understand and interpret the data in dictionaries. ref Sandro Nielsen The Effect of Lexicographical Information Costs on Dictionary Making and Use . In Lexikos 18 2008, 170 189. ref The concept of lexicographic information costs was first proposed by the Danish scholar and metalexicographer Sandro Nielsen see below . The concept is relevant to lexicographers when planning and making a dictionary for the users when consulting the dictionary and for reviewers when evaluating a dictionary. Notes reflist References Sandro Nielsen Mediostructures in Bilingual LSP Dictionaries . In Lexicographica. International Annual for Lexicography 15 1999 ,90 113. Sandro Nielsen Textual Condensation ... more details
graph search algorithm In computer science , lexicographic breadth first search or Lex BFS is a linear time algorithm for ordering the vertices of a graph, that is used as part of other graph algorithms such as the recognition of chordal graph s and optimal graph coloring coloring of distance hereditary graph s. The algorithm for constructing Lex BFS orderings is different from a standard breadth first search every Lex BFS ordering is a possible BFS ordering but not vice versa. The lexicographic breadth first search algorithm is based on the idea of partition refinement and was first developed by harvs first1 Donald J. last1 Rose first2 Robert E. last2 Tarjan author2 link Robert Tarjan first3 George S. last3 Lueker year 1976 txt . A more detailed survey of the topic is presented by harvtxt Corneil 2004 . The algorithm The lexicographic breadth first search algorithm replaces the Queue data structure queue of vertices of a standard breadth first search with an ordered sequence of sets of vertices. The sets in the sequence form a partition set theory partition of the remaining vertices ... is called lexicographic breadth first search because the lexicographic order it produces ... graph, the reverse of a lexicographic ordering is always a perfect elimination ordering. Therefore ... algorithm Use lexicographic breadth first search to find a lexicographic ordering of G Reverse ... graphs are perfectly orderable, and lexicographic breadth first search can be used to optimally ... of a lexicographic ordering, so lexicographic breadth first search can be used in conjunction with greedy ... an extension of lexicographic breadth first search that breaks any additional ties using the complement .... harvtxt Habib McConnell Paul Viennot 2000 describe additional applications of lexicographic breadth ... cograph.ps . citation first Derek G. last Corneil authorlink Derek Corneil contribution Lexicographic ... algorithms th Lexicographic Breadth First Search ... more details
The following graph gives two examples of preferences that are not single peaked. The blue preferences are clearly not single peaked because the preference ranking spikes down for D and then spikes up for E . The green preferences are not single peaked because they have two outcomes that are the most preferred B and C . Such preferences are sometimes called single plateaued. File Singlepeaked2.jpg Interpretations Single peaked preferences have a number of interpretations for different applications. A simple application of ideological preferences is to think of the outcome space ... as little as possible to the stop. Individuals then have single peaked preferences individual math ... that are pro state intervention. Voters have single peaked preferences if they have an ideal ... Banks title Positive Political Theory I Collective Preferences publisher University of Michigan Press ... more details
In economics , Epstein Zin Weil preferences is a specification of recursive utility. A recursive utility function can be constructed from two components a time aggregator that characterizes preferences in the absence of uncertainty and a risk aggregator that defines the certainty equivalent function that characterizes preferences over static gambles and is used to aggregate the risk associated with future utility. With Epstein Zin preferences, the time aggregator is a CES aggregate of current consumption and the certainty equivalent of all future utility, measured in units of current consumption. The certainty equivalent function is a CES aggregate of future utility. Specifically, math U t 1 beta C t frac 1 gamma theta beta E t U t 1 1 gamma frac 1 theta frac theta 1 gamma math See also Elasticity of substitution References The Equity Premium It s Still a Puzzle , Narayana R. Kocherlakota , Journal of Economic Literature , Vol. 34, No. 1. Mar., 1996 , pp. 42 71. JSTOR http links.jstor.org sici?sici 0022 0515 28199603 2934 3A1 3C42 3ATEPISA 3E2.0.CO 3B2 X Substitution, Risk Aversion, and the Temporal Behavior of Consumption Growth and Asset Returns I A Theoretical Framework , Epstein, Larry G. and Stan Zin Zin, Stanley E. , Econometrica , Vol. 57, No. 4. Jul., 1989 , pp. 937 969. Non Expected Utility in Macroeconomics , Weil, Philippe, Quarterly Journal of Economics , Vol. CV, No. 1. Feb., 1990 , pp. 29 42. Category Microeconomics Category Consumer theory microeconomics stub ... more details
Expert subject Economics date November 2008 GHH preferences short for Greenwood Hercowitz Huffman preferences , refer to an economic formula developed by Jeremy Greenwood, Zvi Hercowitz , and Gregory Huffman, in their 1988 paper Investment, Capacity Utilization, and the Real Business Cycle . It describes the macroeconomics macroeconomic impact of technological changes that affect productivity. GHH preferences have Gorman form . Often macroeconomic models assume that agents utility is additively separable in consumption and labor. I.e., frequently the period utility function is something like math u c,l frac c 1 gamma 1 gamma psi frac l 1 theta 1 theta math Where math c math is consumption, math l math is labor e.g., hours worked . Note that this is separable in that the utility loss from working does not directly affect the utility gain or loss from consumption, i.e. the cross derivative of utility with respect to consumption and labor is 0. GHH preferences might instead have a form like math u c,l frac 1 1 gamma left c psi frac l 1 theta 1 theta right 1 gamma math Where now consumption and labor are not additively separable in the same way. With this utility function, the amount you work will actually affect the amount of utility received from consumption, i.e. the cross derivative of utility with respect to consumption and labor is unequal to 0. More generally, the preferences are of the form math u c,l U left c G l right , U 0, U 0, G 0, G 0. math The first order condition of math u c,l math with respect math l math is given by math U left c G l right left frac dc dl G l ... form with math l G 1 w math . As a result, the preferences are exceptionally convenient to work with. Moreover ... Jaimovich Rebelo preferences GHH preferences are not consistent with a Balanced growth equilibrium ... King Plosser Rebelo preferences ref name KPR2002 cite journal last King first Robert G. last2 ... fulltext.pdf accessdate ref and the GHH preferences. References http www.jeremygreenwood.net papers ... more details
KPR preferences short for King Plosser Rebelo preferences are a certain type of preferences that are used in many macroeconomic models and DSGE models in particular. Having originally been proposed in an article that appeared in the Journal of Monetary Economics in 1988, ref name KPR1998 cite journal last King first Robert G. last2 Plosser first2 Charles I. last3 Rebelo first3 Sergio T. author link year 1988 month May journal Journal of Monetary Economics volume 21 pages 195 232 title Production, Growth and Business Cycles I. The Basic Neoclassical Model doi 10.1016 0304 3932 88 90030 X url http 128.197.153.21 rking EC702 kprjme88a.pdf accessdate ref the corresponding technical appendix detailing their derivation has only been published in 2002. ref name KPR2002 cite journal last King first Robert G. last2 Plosser first2 Charles I. last3 Rebelo first3 Sergio T. author link year 2002 month journal Computational Economics volume 20 issue 1 2 pages 87 116 title Production, Growth and Business Cycles Technical Appendix doi 10.1023 A 1020529028761 url http www.springerlink.com content m28u210825682333 fulltext.pdf accessdate ref Denote consumption with C, leisure with L and the absolute value of the inverse of the intertemporal elasticity of substitution in consumption with math sigma c math . Strict concavity of the utility function implies math sigma c 0 math . For math 0 sigma c 1 math or math sigma c 1 math the momentarily utility function has the multiplicatively separable form .... In the limit case of math sigma c 1 math the resulting preferences specification is additively separable ... preferences along with Balanced growth equilibrium balanced growth , some studies use the shortcut of introducing ... to other common macroeconomic preference types KPR preferences are one polar case nested in Jaimovich Rebelo preferences . The latter allow to freely scale the wealth effect on the labor supply. The other polar case is the Greenwood Hercowitz Huffman preferences , where the wealth effect ... more details
The Generalized System of Preferences , or GSP , is a formal system of exemption from the more general rules of the World Trade Organization WTO , formerly, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade or GATT . Specifically, it s a system of exemption from the most favored nation principle MFN that obliges WTO member countries to treat the imports of all other WTO member countries no worse than they treat the imports of their most favored trading partner. In essence, MFN requires WTO member countries to treat imports coming from all other WTO member countries equally, that is, by imposing equal tariffs on them, etc. GSP exempts WTO member countries from MFN for the purpose of lowering tariffs for the least developed countries, without also lowering tariffs for rich countries. History The idea of tariff preferences for developing countries was the subject of considerable discussion within the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development UNCTAD in the 1960s. Among other concerns, developing countries claimed that MFN was creating a disincentive for richer countries to reduce and eliminate tariffs and other trade restrictions with enough speed to benefit developing countries. In 1971, the GATT followed the lead of UNCTAD and enacted two waivers to the MFN that permitted tariff preferences to be granted to developing country goods. Both these waivers were limited in time to ten ... to establish systems of trade preferences for other countries, with the caveat that these systems ... done the same with Everything But Arms . See also Global System of Trade Preferences among Developing ...?intItemID 1418&lang 1 title UNCTAD Introduction to Generalized System of Preferences Information ... generalised system of preferences title E.U. Generalised System of Preferences Information from the European ... economy gsp title Japan Generalized System of Preferences Introduction to Japan s GSP program by the Ministry ... System Of Preferences Category United States trade law Category World Trade Organization bg ... more details
In mathematics, and especially general topology , the lexicographic ordering on the unit square is an example of a topology on the unit square S , i.e. on the set of points x , y in the Plane geometry plane such that nowrap 1 0 x 1 and nowrap 1 0 y 1. ref name CEIT Citation first L. A. last Steen first2 J. A. last2 Seebach title Counterexamples in Topology publisher Dover year 1995 page 73 ISBN 048668735X ref To give S a topology means to say which subset s of S are open , and to do so in a way that the following axiom s are met ref Citation first L. A. last Steen first2 J. A. last2 Seebach title Counterexamples in Topology publisher Dover year 1995 page 3 ISBN 048668735X ref The union mathematics union of open sets is an open set. The finite intersection mathematics intersection of open sets is an open set. S and the empty set are open sets. This is an example of an order topology in which there are uncountably many pairwise disjoint homeomorphic copies of the real line. Construction As the name suggests, we use the lexicographical order ing on the square to define a topology. Given two points in the square, say x , y and u , v , we say that nowrap 1 x , y math scriptstyle prec math u , v if and only if either nowrap 1 x u or both nowrap 1 x u and nowrap 1 y v . Given the lexicographical ordering on the square, we use the order topology to define the topology on S . ref name CEIT For each point u , v we get an open set, denoted U sub u,v sub , given by all the points in S that precede u , v with respect to the lexicographical ordering math U u,v x,y in S x,y prec u,v . math The open sets in the lexicographic ordering on the unit square are the whole set S , the empty set , and those sets generated by the U sub u,v sub , i.e. the sets formed by all possible unions of finite intersections. ref Citation first L. A. last Steen first2 J. A. last2 Seebach title Counterexamples in Topology publisher Dover year 1995 page 4 ISBN 048668735X ref See also Long line topology Long ... more details
More footnotes date September 2010 refimprove date September 2010 The Global System of Trade Preferences among Developing Countries GSTP is a preferential trade agreement signed on 13 April 1988 with the aim of increasing trade between developing countries in the framework of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development . Its entry into force was on 19 April 1989 and its notification to the World Trade Organization WTO on 25 September 1989. Membership File GSTP.png thumb right 334px legend 008000 members legend 00FF00 applicants legend FF0000 former members Current members states, participating since 19 April 1989, are Bangladesh , Cuba , Ghana , India , Nigeria , Singapore , Sri Lanka , Tanzania , Zimbabwe Additionally current members states are Algeria , Argentina , , Benin , Bolivia , Brazil , Cameroon , Chile , Colombia , Ecuador , Egypt 16 07 89 , Republic of Macedonia Macedonia , Guinea , Guyana 04 05 89 , Indonesia , Iran , Iraq , Korea, Democratic People s Republic of North Korea , Korea, Republic of South Korea 11 06 89 , Libya , Malaysia 31 08 89 , Mexico 13 05 89 , Morocco 13 07 89 , Mozambique , Myanmar , Nicaragua 03 05 89 , Pakistan 08 07 89 , Peru 15 04 89 , Philippines , Sudan , Thailand , Trinidad and Tobago , Tunisia 25 08 89 , Venezuela , Vietnam and the trade bloc of MERCOSUR 2 11 2006 ref http www.unctadxi.org templates Page 6638.aspx MERCOSUR ACCEDES TO THE GSTP AGREEMENT MERCOSUR member states are Brazil , Argentina , Uruguay , Paraguay . ref Applicants ref http www.unctadxi.org templates Page 6637.aspx Applications for Accession to the Agreement ref are Burkina Faso , Burundi , Haiti , Madagascar , Mauritania , Rwanda , Suriname , Uganda and Uruguay . Former members Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia Yugoslavia from 19 04 1989 , Romania ... templates Page 6782.aspx First Africa South America Summit ref Generalised System of Preferences References ... of Trade Preferences news http www.unctad.org Templates Page.asp?intItemID 1968&lang 1 United Nations ... more details
based on Musical Preferences, Lifestyle and Dress Code. The second celebration of this day takes ... Intolerance, Discrimination And Violence Based On Musical Preferences, Lifestyle And Dress Code ... more details
of lexicographicpreferences , which in the words of Richard Day, Encarnaci n almost singlehandedly ... Publishing. pp. 272 290 ref LexicographicpreferencesLexicographicpreferences map a set of alternatives X onto a set of vectors, for which reason lexicographicpreferences are also known as vector valued preferences. A mapping onto the set of real numbers instead yields real valued utility ... ordering to distinguish it from the ordinary lexicographic, or L ordering. L orderings under uncertainty Lexicographicpreferences have also been found useful in describing choices under uncertainty .... The term lexicographic refers to the fact that dictionaries similarly order words by their successive components, i.e. letters. L ordering One disadvantage of simple lexicographic ordering as described ..., and ambience may be considerations, in decreasing order. Under simple lexicographic ordering, of course ... that Encarnaci n formalized in 1964 ref A note on lexicographical preferences , Econometrica ... of the vector difference v x v y is positive. This revised lexicographic ordering incorporating ... sub and proceed to define lexicographic preference in the customary manner, with v x v sub 1 sub ... of ruinous levels of x , or on the maximal values of x . Encarnaci n 1987 ref Preferences paradoxes and lexicographic choice , Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 8 2 231 248 ref uses preferences of this form in an ambitious attempt to reconstruct and explain all the apparent paradoxes in choice theory. Apart from lexicographic comparisons the new element introduced into the structure ... more details
of the lexicographic order comes from its generalizing the order given to words in a dictionary ... of A . If is a total order on A , then so is the lexicographic order sup d sup on A . If A is a finite ... over A , and we retrieve the notion of dictionary ordering used in lexicography that gave its name to the lexicographic ... order and the lexicographic order, provided that 0.999... numbers with a recurring decimal 9 like .399999 ... preserving bijection between the strings and the numbers. Reverse lexicographic order In a common variation of lexicographic order, one compares elements by reading from the right instead of from ... be done by the sum of the exponents, downward. See also Collation Colexicographical order Lexicographicpreferences Total order Orders on the Cartesian product of totally ordered sets Orders on the Cartesian product of totally ordered sets Ordered vector space Examples Lexicographic order on the R sup n sup Lexicographic order topology on the unit square Long line topology Product order Category ... more details
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