File Thrifty Gas Prices in San Pedro 2008 06 04.jpg thumb 150px Example of psychologicalpricing at a gas station Psychologicalpricing or price ending is a marketing practice based on the theory that certain prices have a psychological impact. The retail prices are often expressed as odd prices a little ... be expected if consumers were homo economicus perfectly rational . Psychologicalpricing is one cause ... although in Europe the sales tax is generally included in the shelf price . The psychologicalpricing ... because their judgments are anchored on the left most digit. The theory of psychologicalpricing is controversial .... The research showed a clear trend towards psychologicalpricing after the transition. Further, Benford ... of pricing. The importance of this benchmark for detecting irregularities in prices was demonstrated and with it a clear trend towards psychologicalpricing after the nominal shock of the euro ... shock Benford s Law and psychologicalpricing after the euro introduction. International Journal ... psychologicalpricing relevant for the study of politics and public policy. ref Ashworth, J., Heyndels, B., & Smolders, C. 2003 . Psychological taxing in Flemish municipalities. Journal of Economic ... content 6013172346gmv4j5 ref Historical comments Exactly how psychologicalpricing came into common ... 2005 03 get smart for j.html Get smart for just 9.99 DEFAULTSORT PsychologicalPricing Category ... Of Odd Pricing In The Retail Sector , Marketing Bulletin , 1997, 8, Research Note 1, J Holdershaw, P ... coin in 1969, prices often ended in 99 frac 1 2 . This is still seen today in gasoline petrol pricing ..., fractional pricing imposes tangible costs on the vendor printing fractional prices , the cashier .... Now that many customers are used to odd pricing, some restaurants and high end retailers such as Nordstrom ... source speculates it originated in a newspaper pricing competition. Melville E. Stone founded the Chicago ... 166.html The Straight Dope Why do prices end in .99? ref Others have suggested that fractional pricing ... more details
are the pricing objectives ? Do we use profit maximization profit maximization pricing ? How to set the price? cost plus pricing , demand based or value based pricing , rate of return pricing , or competitor indexing Should there be a single price or multiple pricing? Should prices change in various geographical areas, referred to as zone pricing ? Should there be quantity discounts ? What prices are competitors charging? Do you use a price skimming strategy or a penetration pricing strategy? What image do you want the price to convey? Do you use psychologicalpricing ? How important are customer ... discrimination and yield management , price points , psychologicalpricing , product bundling ... Price elasticity of demand Time based pricing Suggested retail price Purchasing power Psychological ... right A price tag for a product on sale. marketing Wikibooks Marketing Pricing is the process of determining what a company will receive in exchange for its products. Pricing factors are manufacturing cost , market place, competition, market condition, and quality of product. Pricing is also a key variable in microeconomic price allocation theory. Pricing is a fundamental aspect of financial modeling ... Ps, the rest being cost center business cost centers . Pricing is the manual or automatic process of applying ... and maintenance but may prevent pricing errors. The needs of the consumer can be converted into demand only if the consumer has the willingness and capacity to buy the product. Thus pricing is very important in marketing. Questions involved in pricingPricing involves asking questions like How ... starting point for discussions about pricing, however, a better question for a vendor to ask is How ... real time pricing be used? Is price discrimination or yield management appropriate? Are there legal ... already exist for the product category? How flexible can we be in pricing? The more competitive the industry, the less flexibility we have. The price floor is determined by production, costs, and pricing ... more details
pricing main PsychologicalpricingPricing designed to have a positive psychological ...Pricing strategies for product business products or Service economics services encompass three main ways ... with a better pricing strategy. In the downturn of 2008 11, and since, when costs are likely already at their lowest and sales are hard to find, adopting a better pricing strategy is a key option ... adopting a pricing strategy is a learning curve when studying the needs and behaviors of customers and clients. ref Gregson, Andrew. Pricing Strategies for Small Business 2008 Self Counsel Press. ISBN 978 1 55180 979 3 ref Models of pricing Cost plus pricing main Cost plus pricing Cost plus pricing is the simplest pricing method. The firm calculates the cost of producing the product and adds on a percentage ... the product at the calculated price. This appears in two forms, Full cost pricing which takes into consideration both variable and fixed costs and adds a markup. The other is Direct cost pricing which ..., a seller must use other pricing tactics such as economy or penetration. This method can have some ..., The Pricing Strategy Audit , 2003, Cambridge Strategy Publications, p. 40 ISBN 978 0 273 64938 0 ref Limit pricing main Limit price A limit price is the price set by a monopolist to discourage economic ... under perfect competition. The problem with limit pricing as a strategy is that once the entrant ... s best response. This means that for limit pricing to be an effective deterrent to entry, the threat ... cost to stimulate other profitable sales. Market oriented pricing Setting a price based upon analysis ... on the results from the research. For instance if the competitors are pricing their products at a lower ... on what the company wants to achieve . Penetration pricing main Penetration pricing Setting the price ... share is gained. ref Kent B. Monroe, The Pricing Strategy Audit , 2003, Cambridge Strategy ... ages, such as classes, or for different opening times, . Premium pricing main Premium ... more details
orphan date February 2009 A pricing schedule is a Function mathematics function that maps the quantity of a Good economics good purchased to the total price paid. Types of pricing schedules Linear pricing schedule Linear Pricing Schedule A pricing schedule in which there is a fixed price per unit, such that where total price paid is represented by T q , quantity is represented by q and price per unit is represented by a constant p , T q pq ref http economics.about.com library glossary bldef linear pricing schedule.htm Linear Pricing Schedule ref Nonlinear Pricing Schedule Nonlinear pricing is a pricing schedule in which quantity and total price are not mapped to each other in a strictly linear fashion ref http economics.about.com cs economicsglossary g nonlinear.htm Nonlinear Pricing ref Affine Pricing An affine pricing schedule consists of both a fixed cost and a cost per unit. Using the same notation as above, T q k pq, where k is a constant cost . ref http economics.about.com cs economicsglossary g affine pricing.htm Affine Pricing ref References reflist Category Financial economics econ stub ... more details
Nonlinear pricing is a broad term that covers any kind of price structure in which there is a nonlinear relationship between price and the quantity of goods. An example is affine pricing . References and links http economics.about.com cs economicsglossary g nonlinear.htm Definition on About.com See Also Two part tariff Second degree price discrimination Category Pricing economics stub ... more details
Martingale pricing is a pricing approach based on the notions of Martingale probability theory martingale and risk neutral measure risk neutrality . The martingale pricing approach is a cornerstone of modern quantitative finance and can be applied to a variety of derivative finance derivatives contracts, e.g. option finance options , Futures contract futures , interest rate derivative s, credit derivatives , etc. In contrast to the Partial differential equation PDE approach to pricing, martingale pricing formulae are in the form of expectations which can be efficiently solved numerically using a Monte Carlo method Monte Carlo approach. As such, Martingale pricing is preferred when valuing highly dimensional contracts such as a basket of options. On the other hand, valuing American option American style contracts is troublesome and requires discretizing the problem making it like a Bermudan option and and only in 2001 Francis Longstaff F. A. Longstaff and Eduardo Schwartz E. S. Schwartz developed a practical Monte Carlo method for pricing American options. ref cite journal last1 Longstaff first1 F.A. first2 E.S. last2 Schwartz url http repositories.cdlib.org anderson fin 1 01 accessdate October 8, 2011 title Valuing American options by simulation a simple least squares approach journal Review of Financial Studies volume 14 year 2001 pages 113 148 ref See also Martingale probability theory References Reflist DEFAULTSORT Martingale Pricing Category Finance theories Category Mathematical finance Category Pricing ... more details
Geographical pricing , in marketing , is the practice of modifying a basic list price based on the geographical location of the buyer. It is intended to reflect the costs of shipping to different locations. There are several types of geographic pricing FOB origin Free on Board origin The shipping cost from the factory or warehouse is paid by the purchaser. Ownership of the goods is transferred to the buyer as soon as it leaves the point of origin. It can be either the buyer or seller that arranges for the transportation. Uniform delivery pricing also called postage stamp pricing The same price is charged to all. Zone pricing Prices increase as shipping distances increase. This is sometimes done by drawing concentric circles on a map with the plant or warehouse at the center and each circle defining the boundary of a price zone. Instead of using circles, irregularly shaped price boundaries ... cost. The term zone pricing can also refer to the practice of setting prices that reflect local competitive .... Citation needed date December 2007 Zone pricing, as practiced in the gasoline industry in the United States, is the pricing of gasoline based on a complex and secret weighting of factors, such as the number ... businesspeople and economists state that gasoline zone pricing merely reflects the costs of doing ... stations, make zone pricing into an excuse to raise gasoline prices virtually at will. Oil industry ... variations outside industry control. Citation needed date December 2007 Basing point pricing Certain ... the same amount. Freight absorption pricing The seller absorbs all or part of the cost of transportation ... promotion al tactic. See also Incoterms Pricing Marketing Geo marketing Distribution business Distribution ... editions valley Zones of Contention in Gasoline Pricing LA Times http www.illinois.gov gasprices zonePricing.htm Zone Pricing state of Illinois http www.cato.org dailys 04 04 03.html Balance Sheet of Gouging Cato Institute Category International trade Category Marketing Category Pricing ... more details
unreferenced date May 2009 For other pricing strategies and policies please see here Pricing strategies Penetration pricing is the pricing technique of setting a relatively low initial entry price, often lower than the eventual market price, to attract new customers. The strategy works on the expectation that customers will switch to the new brand because of the lower price. Penetration pricing is most commonly associated with a marketing objective of increasing market share or sales volume, rather than to make profit in the short term. The advantages of penetration pricing to the firm are It can result in fast diffusion business diffusion and adoption. This can achieve high market penetration rates quickly. This can take the competition by surprise, not giving them time to react. It can create goodwill among the early adopters market segment segment . This can create more trade through word of mouth . It creates cost control and cost reduction pressures from the start, leading to greater efficiency. It discourages the entry of competitors. Low prices act as a barrier to entry see porter 5 forces analysis . It can create high stock turnover throughout the distribution business distribution ... be based on profit maximization marginal cost pricing , which is economically efficient. The main disadvantage with penetration pricing is that it establishes long term price expectations for the product ... to eventually raise prices. Some commentators claim that penetration pricing attracts only the switchers ... for the printer itself. Taken to the extreme, penetration pricing becomes predatory pricing , when ... a monopoly . In most countries, predatory pricing is antitrust illegal , although it can be difficult to differentiate illegal predatory pricing from legal penetration pricing. See also pricing marketing microeconomics production, costs, and pricing business model price skimming sales promotion DEFAULTSORT Penetration Pricing Category Pricing Category Marketing de Penetrationsstrategie ... more details
Orphan date February 2009 Employee pricing is a selling strategy launched in 2005 by the auto industry in order to attract customers by using the discounted prices that auto industry employees pay for new cars rather than the sticker price Suggested retail price MSRP . The program was first offered that year by General Motors Corporation General Motors , and later followed by Ford Motors Ford , Chrysler , and some local dealerships. While 2005 was the biggest year for the promotion, it has since been used several times, like during the automotive industry crisis of 2008 to stimulate sales. Chrysler was the most notable of all during this promotion, with its Employee Pricing Plus . Characterized by generous incentives combined with rebates on most Chrysler, Dodge, and Jeep models, Chrysler claims their offer bests those employee discount prices offered by General Motors Corporation General Motors or Ford Motor Company . Lee Iacocca is the celebrity spokesman for the campaign he appears in summer 2005 ads with Jason Alexander , Snoop Dogg , and his granddaughter. According to its TV ads and website, the world s first employee pricing program for customers was instituted by The Brick, a Canadian furniture store. Starting on July 1, 2006, Chrysler reinstituted the Employee Pricing Plus program to run from July 1 to July 31. For the first five days of the program, all Chrysler, Dodge, Jeep dealerships in the United States were open until midnight to support the program, a first in the company s history. The discounted prices however do not impact profits much, as the margins are recovered with higher sales and better contribution to fixed costs. Chrysler is reinstating employee pricing price starting January 26th, 2009. Critics of this strategy have stated that employee pricing ... Employee Pricing Plus Official Website http www.money.cnn.com 2006 06 22 Autos chrysler incentives.reut index.htm CNN Money Article about DaimlerChrysler s Employee Pricing Program for 2006 Category ... more details
by a unit of measure price per 100gm, price per 100ml . Unit Pricing was originally developed ... of this information. It is argued that as a measure of a consumer s understanding of unit pricing ... 1987 Mitchell et al. 2003 . Unit Pricing was implemented into British, European Union and North American ... Trade Price legislation to force all large supermarkets and groceries stores to display Unit Pricing ... et al. 2003 Jarratt 2007 Kachersky 2011 Diaz 2011 . The benefits of Unit Pricing have been widely reported in the literature. It has been argued that Unit Pricing reduces time spent comparing brands ... Russo et al. 1975a Miyazaki et al. 2000 Mitchell et al. 2003 . Unit pricing enables the consumers ... Aaker, D. A. and G. T. Ford. 1983. Unit Pricing Ten Years Later A Replication. Journal of Marketing 47 Winter pp. 118 122. Boya, U. O. 1987. Consumer Usage of Unit Pricing. Journal of Consumer ... in Unit Pricing. Journal of Retailing 48 Winter p. 63 72. Houston, M. J. 1972. The Effect of Unit Pricing on Choices of Brand and Size Economic Shopping. Journal of Marketing 36 July pp. 51 69. Isakson, H. R. and A. R. Maurizi. 1973. The Consumer Economics of Unit Pricing. Journal of Marketing ... of Unit Pricing on Low Income Consumers. Journal of Marketing Research 11 November pp. 453 455. Lamont, L. M., J. Rothe and C. Slater. 1972. Unit Pricing A Positive Response to Consumerism. European Journal of Marketing 6 4 pp. 223 233. McCullough, D. T. and D. I. Padberg. 1971. Unit Pricing .... McElroy, B. F. and D. A. Aaker. 1979. Unit Pricing Six Years After Introducton. Journal of Retailing 3 Fall pp. 44 57. McGoldrick, P. and H. Marks. 1983. A Case for Unit Pricing? Journal of Retail .... 2003. Consumer Awareness, Understanding and Usage of Unit Pricing. British Journal of Management ..., K. B. and P. J. LaPlaca. 1972. What are the Benefits of Unit Pricing? Journal of Marketing 36 July pp. 16 22. Price, C. C. 1978. Consumer Awareness and Use of Unit Pricing U.S. Department ... more details
In commodities transactions, formula pricing is an arrangement where a buyer and seller agree in advance on the price to be paid for a product delivered in the future, based upon a pre determined calculation. For example, a packer might agree to pay a hog producer the average cash market price on the day the hogs will be delivered, plus a 2 cent per pound premium. Such transactions have been used widely in agriculture, particularly for livestock. Users believe that formula pricing brings efficiency and predictability to market transactions. However, as the use of formula pricing expands, fewer animals are sold in cash markets, where prices are more widely reported and understood by producers. Some of these producers believe that formula pricing makes it harder to determine the true value of their animals in the marketplace, and creates greater opportunity for buyers to manipulate and pay lower prices. References CRS article Report for Congress Agriculture A Glossary of Terms, Programs, and Laws, 2005 Edition url http ncseonline.org nle crsreports 05jun 97 905.pdf author Jasper Womach Category United States Department of Agriculture ... more details
Classified pricing is the pricing system of federal milk marketing orders, under which milk processors pay into a pool for fluid grade Grade A milk. The price that processors have to pay into the pool is based on how the milk ultimately is used. Milk used for fluid Class I consumption generally receives the highest price and lower minimum prices are paid for the three classes of milk used for manufactured dairy products Class II yogurt, cottage cheese, ice cream, and other soft manufactured products , Class III cheese , and Class IV butter and nonfat dry milk . References CRS article Report for Congress Agriculture A Glossary of Terms, Programs, and Laws, 2005 Edition url http ncseonline.org nle crsreports 05jun 97 905.pdf author Jasper Womach DEFAULTSORT Classified Pricing Category Agriculture in the United States ... more details
pricing, called real time pricing , has arisen. In some markets events occur so fast that there is insufficient ... instantly as they occur. A variant of real time pricing is online auction business model such as eBay ... real time pricing because there is a delay built into the eBay system . Traditional auctions are inefficient ..., and increase the average bid price. In addition to these examples of variable pricing in the short term, there are long term pricing practices that could be considered instances of variable pricing. They are price skimming , penetration pricing , and seasonal discount s. Sales are a traditional example of discriminatory pricing. During the holiday season prices are high. Come the new year ... at discounts before the new model year. Discriminatory pricing is not always bad. It helps people ... the .com main site. See also Pricing Price discrimination Marketing Yield management Geo marketing ..., J. Dynamic Pricing Strategies for Multi Product Revenue Management Problems. MSOM 2006 . Category Pricing Category Marketing Category Electronic commerce ... more details
Unreferenced date December 2009 Pricing objectives or goals give direction to the whole pricing process. Determining what your objectives are is the first step in pricing. When deciding on pricing objectives you must consider 1 the overall financial, marketing, and strategic objectives of the company 2 the objectives of your product or brand 3 consumer price elasticity of demand price elasticity and price points and 4 the resources you have available. Some of the more common pricing objectives are maximize long run profit maximize short run profit increase sales volume quantity increase monetary sales increase market share obtain a target rate of return on investment ROI obtain a target rate of return on sales stabilize market or stabilize market price an objective to stabilize price means that the marketing manager attempts to keep prices stable in the marketplace and to compete on non price considerations. Stabilization of margin is basically a cost plus approach in which the manager attempts to maintain the same margin regardless of changes in cost. company growth maintain price leadership desensitize customers to price discourage new entrants into the industry match competitors prices encourage the exit of marginal firms from the industry survival avoid government investigation or intervention obtain or maintain the loyalty and enthusiasm of distribution business distributors and other sales personnel enhance the image of the firm, brand , or product business product be perceived as fair by customers and potential customers create interest and excitement about a product discourage competitors from cutting prices use price to make the product visible build store traffic help prepare for the sale of the business harvesting social, ethical, or ideological objectives get competitive advantage DEFAULTSORT Pricing Objectives Category Pricing Category Marketing ca Objectius de la fixaci de preus es Objetivos de la fijaci n de precios ... more details
Notability date September 2009 Pricing science is the application of social and business science methods ... in the airline industry in the 1980s, and has since spread to many other sectors and pricing contexts .... Pricing science work is effectuated in a variety of ways, from strategic advice on pricing on defining segments for which pricing strategies may vary, to Enterprise software enterprise class software applications , integrated into price quoting and selling processes. History Pricing science ... for sale. For a good overview of pricing science methods and applications related to yield or revenue management, see Phillips ref Phillips, R. L. 2005 . Pricing and Revenue Optimization . Stanford ... pricing and related decisions in a variety of other settings. Yield management has been applied successfully .... Since about 2000, the application of pricing science to the problems of quoting prices in business ... technology. The growth of low cost carriers offering restriction free pricing, name your own price channels, and auctions all stimulated this interest in applying science to the pricing ..., the discipline of pricing science became more rigorous and methodological. Initially, statistical ... discipline, has a section devoted to this specialty, the Revenue Management and Pricing section. http ... pricing applications, the term Pricing Science has become much more common to refer to the discipline and Pricing Scientists to refer to the practitioners. Methods The methods employed in pricing science ... . The forecasting problem reflects the fact that the pricing decisions are intended to affect ... required to reach feasible and practical pricing solutions. Forecasting Methods There are two forecasting sub problems predicting time phased demand and predicting demand response to the pricing ... must be balanced by use of pricing or related controls. In many of these types of applications, predicting response to pricing decisions is also important, since price is often the control instrument ... more details
Supracompetitive pricing is pricing above what can be sustained in a competitive market. This may be indicative of a business that has a unique legal or competitive advantage, or possibly of anti competitive behavior that has driven competition from the market. An example of a unique legal advantage would be a drug company that is the first to discover and successfully manufacture a medication to treat a certain disease. Initially, as the only market player, the drug company may be able to charge supra competitive prices until other companies catch up. In this case, the regulatory hurdle for drug approval may prove a substantial barrier to new competition. However, other companies may not be able to enter the market due to another barrier to entry , intellectual property IP rights. The drug company may have a patent on the new formulation, barring competitors until the patent expires unless they can license rights from the IP owner. An example of a competitive advantage may be a large company with a trusted brand name and a substantial marketing budget that simply overwhelms a local competitor by driving demand for its product over the competitor s product, at least in the short term. Supracompetitive pricing may also result following a period of predatory pricing , which has potential antitrust implications for the predator. References Phillip E. Areeda & Donald F. Turner , Predatory Pricing and Related Practices Under Section 2 of the Sherman Act, Harvard Law Review , Vol. 88, p. 697 1975 . Phillip E. Areeda & Herbert Hovenkamp , Antitrust Law, par. 723 745 2nd Ed. 2002 . econ stub Category Pricing Category Monopoly economics Category Imperfect competition ... more details
Premium pricing is the practice of keeping the price of a product or service artificially high in order to encourage favorable perceptions among buyers, based solely on the price. ref name Gittings000 cite book last Gittings first Christopher title The Advertising Handbook publisher Routledge location New York year 2002 isbn 0415243912 ref The practice is intended to exploit the not necessarily justifiable tendency for buyers to assume that expensive items enjoy an exceptional reputation or represent exceptional quality and distinction. Strategic considerations The use of premium pricing as either a marketing strategy or a competitive practice depends on certain factors that influence its profitability and sustainability. The disadvantages of this pricing strategy includes violation of the ACCC. Such factors include Information asymmetry e.g., when buyers have no independent basis to test claims of exceptional quality for a particular product or service assuming the concept is well defined to begin with Market status as a Luxury good or a Superior good and Market dynamics such as the level of competition and Barriers to entry entry barriers . ref cite book last Smith first Gordon title Trademark Valuation publisher Wiley location New York year 1997 isbn 0471141127 ref See also Price premium References reflist Category Pricing Category Marketing ... more details
Competition law In business and economics , predatory pricing is the practice of selling a product or service ... could then raise prices above what the market would otherwise bear. In many countries predatory pricing ... pricing rather than legitimate price competition . In any case, competitors may be driven out of the market ... term predatory pricing through sharp discounting reduces profit margins, as would a price war , and will cause Profit economics profits to fall. There are various tests to assess whether the pricing .... Yet businesses may engage in predatory pricing as a longer term strategy. Competitors who are not as financially ... competitive levels to supra competitive pricing . The predator hopes to generate revenues and profits in the future that will more than offset the losses it incurred during the predatory pricing period ... stated that this is not necessary for a finding of predatory pricing. In essence, the predator undergoes ... allowing supra competitive pricing to prevail long enough to dwarf the initial loss. Legal aspects In many countries there are legal restrictions for using this pricing strategy, which may be deemed ... engaging in predatory pricing. The amendments, labelled the Birdsville Amendments after Senator Barnaby ... Predatory pricing laws shock big operators accessdate 2009 03 16 publisher ABC Australia date 2007 10 ... Act, which criminalized predatory pricing, has been repealed. ref http laws lois.justice.gc.ca eng ... or a competitor. The Competition Bureau has established Predatory Pricing Guidelines defining what is considered to be unreasonably low pricing. United States Predatory pricing practices may result ... hurdles to antitrust claims based on a predatory pricing theory. The Court requires plaintiffs to show a likelihood that the pricing practices will affect not only rivals but also competition in the market ... its investment through supra competitive pricing, then there is no probability of success and the antitrust ... claim that true predatory pricing is rare because it is an irrational practice and that laws designed ... more details
Rational pricing is the assumption in financial economics that asset prices and hence asset pricing models ... away . This assumption is useful in pricing fixed income securities, particularly bonds, and is fundamental to the pricing of derivative instruments. Arbitrage mechanics This section is linked ... income securities Rational pricing is one approach used in pricing fixed rate bond s. Here, each cash ... of its cash flows discounted at the same rate as each ZCB, Rational pricing Assets with identical ... back into line with the price based on ZCBs see Bond valuation Arbitrage free pricing approach Bond valuation Arbitrage free pricing approach The pricing formula is as below, where each cash flow math ... Bond credit rating . Pricing derivatives A derivative finance derivative is an instrument that allows ... Fundamental theorem of arbitrage free pricing Futures This section is linked from Contango In a futures ... rate the Rational pricing An asset with a known future price asset with a known future price , as above ... see Futures contract Pricing futures contract pricing . Any deviation from this equality allows ... pricing models therefore include logic that either locks in or infers this future value both approaches deliver identical results. Methods that lock in future cash flows assume arbitrage free pricing , and those that infer expected value assume Rational pricing Risk neutral valuation risk neutral valuation ... in one period is therefore known, and arbitrage pricing is applicable. The risk neutral approach ... as below, or may be found from the value of the call using put call parity . Arbitrage free pricing ... corresponds to the forward price above Rational pricing An asset with a known future price An asset ... Rational pricing Assets with identical cash flows Assets with identical cash flows , in the absence ..., or whether, instead, a Capital Asset Pricing Model Asset specific required return premium over risk ... of prices. Nevertheless, both arbitrage free pricing and risk neutral valuation deliver ... more details
airports. Congestion pricing or congestion charges is a system of surcharging users of a transport ... toll road toll like road pricing fees, and higher peak charges for public utility utilities , public transport and slots in canal s and airports . This variable pricing strategy regulates demand, making ... theory, which encompasses the congestion pricing concept, postulates that users will be forced to pay ... Road Pricing Singapore Singapore , and Ecopass Milan , as well as a few smaller towns. Four ... the cordon line area wide congestion pricing, which charges for being inside an area a city center toll ring, with toll collection surrounding the city and corridor or single facility congestion pricing, where access to a lane or a facility is priced. Implementation of congestion pricing has reduced ... pricing is not equitable, places an economic burden on neighboring communities, has a negative ... form of road pricing to reduce congestion is economically viable, although there is disagreement on what form road pricing should take. They primarily argue that recent advances in technology have significantly ... on Road Pricing? The Intellectual History of an Idea month May year 2006 url http econjwatch.org ... of climate change have renewed interest in congestion pricing, as it is considered one of the demand ... 591 6 ref Description File TE Pricing EquilibriumCongestion.png thumb right Economic rationale for moving from untolled equilibrium to congestion pricing equilibrium. Congestion pricing is a concept from market economy market economics regarding the use of Free price system pricing mechanisms to charge ... theory behind congestion pricing, the objective of this policy is the use of the price mechanism ... from private transport to public transport. This pricing mechanism has been used in several public ... to the service. Congestion pricing has been widely used by telephone and Electric utility electric ... tristan pubs ieeeic01.pdf format PDF year 2001 title Congestion Pricing Paying Your Way in Communication ... more details
unreferenced date November 2008 In economics , affine pricing is a situation where buying more than zero of a good gains a fixed benefit or cost, and each purchase after that gains a per unit benefit or cost. Where T is the total price paid, q is the quantity in units purchased, p is a constant price per unit, k is the fixed cost, the affine price is then calculated by math T p q k math In mathematical language, the price is an affine function sometimes also linear function of the quantity bought. An example would be a cell phone contract where a base price is paid each month with a per minute price for calls. Sliding scale price contracts achieve a similar effect, although the terms are stated differently. The price decreases with volume produced, achieving the same financial transfer over time, but the transaction is always based on units sold, with the fixed cost amortized into the price of each unit. Category Pricing econometrics stub ... more details
Water pricing is a term that covers various processes to assign a price to water. These processes differ greatly under different circumstances Bottled water Prices for bottled water are set in the market. Retail prices vary widely between countries, brands, bottle sizes 0.33 liter to 20 liters and place of sale supermarket, restaurant etc. . They range from US 0.20 to US 6 per liter, equivalent to US 200 to US 6,000 per cubic meter. Tanker trucks Prices for water sold by tanker trucks in bulk, which is common in cities of some developing countries for households without access to piped water supply, are set in the market. Prices for trucked water vary between about US 1 and US 6 per cubic meter. Utility tariffs Prices for piped water supply provided by utilities, be they publicly or privately managed, are determined administratively see water tariff s . They vary from US 0.01 to almost US 8 per cubic meter including sewer tariffs . Irrigation Prices for irrigation water that is being provided by a public agency are also typically determined administratively, usually using a flat rate, since metering is not common in agriculture in most countries of the world. The following pricing systems exist for irrigation ref World Bank , by K. William Easter and Yang Liu http 209.85.129.132 search?q cache http siteresources.worldbank.org INTARD Resources Cost Recovery final.pdf Cost Recovery and Water Pricing for Irrigation and Drainage Projects , Agriculture and Rural Development Discussion Paper 26, 2005, p. 15 19, accessed on February 7, 2010 ref Area based tariffs, sometimes differentiated by type of crop grown Volumetric pricing, which requires measurement Tariffs can be paid in the form of labor, which holds mainly in communal types of management in traditional irrigation systems, or in cash. Tariffs can also vary between seasons, with higher tariffs charged during the dry season ... of Australia, Chile and the Southwestern United States . References reflist Category Pricing Category ... more details
for the more specific concept of congestion charges to curb urban traffic demand Congestion pricing Economics sidebar Cleanup article date September 2010 Road pricing is an economic concept regarding the various ... licence licence fees , parking taxes, Toll road tolls , and congestion pricing congestion charges ... Lanes url http managed lanes.tamu.edu products glossary.stm ref Road pricing has two distinct objectives revenue generation, usually for road infrastructure financing, and congestion pricing for Transportation ... of a city are typical examples of using road pricing for congestion management purposes. ref cite web url http www.vtpi.org tdm tdm35.htm title Congestion Pricing, Value Pricing, Toll Roads and HOT ... of traffic congestion , European governments are giving serious consideration to nationwide road pricing ... system, although it is possible to arrange road pricing using various different technologies ... by the company Toll Collect and Austria are already underway. The LKW MAUT road pricing scheme began ... pass. Although the program was operationally similar to existing congestion pricing schemes, its main ... 2008 12 31 publisher Comune di Milano accessdate 2009 02 14 language Italian The complete pricing scheme ... pilot program. The Area C is a conventional congestion pricing scheme and is based on the same Ecopass ... main Stockholm congestion tax Stockholm has a congestion pricing system, Stockholm congestion tax , ref ... periodically considered the possibility of using road pricing since the early 1960s, when the Smeed ... and Coventry , rejected the idea of imposing road pricing schemes on the area, this was despite promises ... pricing pilot scheme. ref name bbc 20080305 cite news title Road pricing proposals rejected date ... 12 ref In October 2005 the UK government suggested they explore piggy backing road pricing on private ... road pricing than they do at present through petrol and car taxes, whereas urban motorists would ... roads. Specify date October 2008 The UK government announced funding for road pricing research in seven ... more details
Transfer pricing refers to the setting, analysis, documentation, and adjustment of charges made between ... 1 1 1,00.html Transfer Pricing Guidelines state, Transfer prices are significant for both taxpayers ... adopted transfer pricing rules. ref Several websites provide overviews of transfer pricing regulations ... on the TPanalytics website. ref Transfer pricing rules in most countries are based on what is referred to as the arm s length principle that is to establish transfer prices based on analysis of pricing ... theory Image price trans no ext small.jpg thumb 175px Transfer Pricing with No External Market The discussion in this section explains an economic theory behind optimal transfer pricing with optimal defined as transfer pricing that maximizes overall firm profits in a non realistic world with no taxation ... VAT , Corporate tax taxes on profits , and in many cases simple lack of attention to the pricing ... ext small.jpg thumb 175px Transfer Pricing with a Competitive External Market It can be shown algebraically ... Transfer Pricing with an Imperfect External Market If the firm is able to sell its transfer goods in an imperfect ... restrictions may in effect impose advance restrictions on prices charged. ref Transfer pricing rules ... pricing rules. History Transfer pricing adjustments have been a feature of many tax systems since the 1930s ... led the development of detailed, comprehensive transfer pricing guidelines with a http www.highbeam.com ... 1 1 1 1,00.html OECD Transfer Pricing Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises and Tax Administrations ... a determination of how the testing must be conducted, referred to as a transfer pricing method. ref ... to the functioning of the primary business. ref Transfer pricing rules recognize that it may ... by the contributing member, and is itself subject to transfer pricing rules or special CSA rules ... to transfer pricing adjustments by tax authorities. These penalties may have thresholds for the basic ... charged are within the prices permitted under the transfer pricing rules. Where such documentation ... more details
Pricing in Proportion is a Royal Mail postal price structure in the United Kingdom introduced on 21 August 2006. It is also used on the Isle of Man by Isle of Man Post , but not on the other island post networks Jersey Post and Guernsey Post . The system has three bands letter , large letter and packet . The price of mail is based on the size of the item as well as weight. It was started by the Royal Mail to make the pricing of mail reflect the actual cost of postage. Royal Mail originally claimed that 80 of items would be unaffected by the change which would also be revenue neutral . This was then revised down to 70 i.e. 30 cost more or less than before . Fact date October 2007 The system Letter The size is a piece of mail that has a maximum length of 240 mm 9.45 , ref weight a width of 165 mm 6.50 and a thickness of 5 mm 0.20 . Its weight must not go over 100 g 3.53 oz . In simple terms, it a letter that is no bigger than an Envelope size C5 envelope with no more than a few sheets of Paper size A4 paper. Examples are most letters, bills and statements. Large Letter The size is a piece of mail that has a maximum length of 353 mm 13.90 , a width of 250 mm 9.84 and a thickness of 25 mm 0.98 . It can weigh up to 750 g 26.46 oz . In layman s terms, it is anything smaller than a C4 envelope with about 100 pieces of A4 paper. Example of this are many brochure s, Mail order catalogue s and company reports, some magazine s, or DVDs in their boxes. Packet Anything bigger than a large letter is classed as a packet, so catalogues like the Argos retailer Argos book or some of the stationery catalogues, VCR tapes, posters in their cardboard tubes and parcels. Note small note weight All the English unit imperial measure s are up to two decimal places and are just a rough guide. Royal Mail uses International System of Units metric throughout their postal system. small External links http www.postoffice.co.uk portal rm content2?catId 400105&mediaId 21100324&campaignid pipbottomrightpromo ... more details
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