No footnotes date September 2011 The term language center or more accurately centers, e.g. Broca s area and Wernicke s area refers to the areas of the brain which serve a particular function for speech processing and production. Current scientific consensus New medical imaging techniques such as Positron emission tomography PET and Functional magnetic resonance imaging fMRI have allowed researchers to generate pictures showing which areas of a living brain are active at a given time. In the past, research was primarily based on observations of loss of ability resulting from damage to the cerebral cortex . Indeed, medical imaging has represented a radical step forward for research on speech processing. Since then, a whole series of relatively large areas of the brain have been found to be involved in speech processing. In more recent research, subcortical regions those lying below the cerebral cortex such as the putamen and the caudate nucleus as well as the pre motor areas Brodmann area 6 BA 6 have received increased attention. It is now generally assumed that the following structures of the cerebral cortex near the Primary auditory cortex primary and secondary auditory cortexes play a fundamental role in speech processing Superior temporal gyrus STG Morphology linguistics Paradigms and morphosyntax morphosyntactic processing anterior section , integration of syntax syntactic and semantics semantic information posterior section Inferior frontal gyrus IFG, Brodmann area BA Brodmann area 45 45 Brodmann area 47 47 syntactic processing, working memory Inferior frontal gyrus IFG, Brodmann area 44 BA 44 syntactic processing, working memory Middle temporal gyrus MTG Lexical semantics lexical semantic processing The left hemisphere is usually dominant in right handed people, although bilateral activations are not uncommon in the area of syntactic processing. It is now accepted that the right hemisphere plays an important role in the processing of suprasegmental acoustic fea ... more details
Infobox Brain Name Centromedian nucleus Latin nucleus centromedianus thalami GraySubject GrayPage Image Caption Image2 Caption2 IsPartOf Components Artery Vein BrainInfoType hier BrainInfoNumber 306 MeshName MeshNumber NeuroLex Centromedian nucleus NeuroLexID birnlex 805 DorlandsPre n 11 DorlandsSuf 12580665 In the anatomy of the brain, the centromedian nucleus , also known as the centrum medianum , CM or Cm Pf is a part of the intralaminar nucleus ILN of the thalamus . There are two centromedian nuclei arranged bilaterally. It contains about 2000 neuron s per cubic millimetre and has a volume of about 310 cubic millimetres with 664,000 neurons in total. ref cite journal author Henderson J, Carpenter K, Cartwright H, Halliday G title Loss of thalamic intralaminar nuclei in progressive supranuclear palsy and Parkinson s disease clinical and therapeutic implications journal Brain volume 123 Pt 7 issue 7 pages 1410 1421 year 2000 pmid 10869053 url http brain.oupjournals.org cgi content full 123 7 1410 doi 10.1093 brain 123.7.1410 ref Input and output It sends nerve fibre s to the subthalamic nucleus and putamen . ref cite journal last Powell first T. P. S. coauthors Cowan W. M. title The interpretation of the degenerative changes in the intralaminar nuclei of the thalamus journal Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry volume 30 issue 2 pages 140 153 year 1967 pmid 4962197 pmc 496153 doi 10.1136 jnnp.30.2.140 ref It receives nerve fibres from the cerebral cortex, vestibular nuclei , globus pallidus , superior colliculus , reticular formation , and spinothalamic tract . Function Its physiological role involves attention and arousal , including control of the level of cortical activity. Some frequencies of extracellular electrical stimulation of the centromedian nucleus can cause absence seizure s temporary loss of consciousness although electrical stimulation can be of therapeutic use in intractable epilepsy and Tourette syndrome Tourette s syndrome . General an ... more details
Infobox disease Name Middle cerebral artery syndrome Image Gray517.png Caption Outer surface of cerebral hemisphere, showing areas supplied by cerebral arteries. Pink is region supplied by middle cerebral artery. DiseasesDB ICD10 ICD10 G 46 0 g 40 ICD9 ICDO OMIM MedlinePlus eMedicineSubj pmr eMedicineTopic 77 MeshID D020244 Middle cerebral artery syndrome is a condition whereby the blood supply from the middle cerebral artery MCA is restricted, leading to a reduction of the function of the portions of the brain supplied by that vessel the lateral aspects of frontal, temporal and parietal lobes, the corona radiata , globus pallidus , caudate and putamen . The MCA is the most common site for the occurrence of ischemic stroke . ref name O Sullivan Depending upon the location and severity of the occlusion, signs and symptoms may vary within the population affected with MCA syndrome. More distal blockages tend to produce milder deficits due to more extensive branching of the artery and less ischemic response. In contrast, the most proximal occlusions result in widespread effects that can lead to significant cerebral edema , increased intracranial pressure , loss of consciousness and could even be fatal. ref name O Sullivan In such occasions, mannitol osmotic diuretic or hypertonic saline are given to draw fluid out of the oedematus cerebrum to minimise secondary injury. Hypertonic saline is better than mannitol, as mannitol being a diuretic will decrease the mean arterial pressure and since cerebral perfusion is mean arterial pressure minus intracranial pressure, mannitol will also cause a decrease in cerebral perfusion. Contralateral hemiparesis and hemisensory loss of the face, upper and lower extremities is the most common presentation of MCA syndrome. ref name O Sullivan Lower extremity function is more spared than that of the faciobrachial region. ref name strokecenter1 The majority of the primary motor and somatosensory cortices are supplied by the MCA and the cort ... more details
from the lenticular nucleus made up of the globus pallidus and the putamen by the anterior limb of the internal capsule . Together the caudate and putamen form the dorsal striatum . Neurochemistry ... purple caudate nucleus and putamen, orange thalamus File Slide2gg.JPG Caudate nucleus File Slide13kk.JPG ... more details
, L., Gong, Q. Y., Shang, H. F., et al. 2010 . Hyperactive Putamen in Patients with Paroxysmal Kinesigenic ... ALFF of the patients. They found that the Postcentral gyrus left postcentral gyrus and the Putamen bilateral putamen had increased ALFF in PKD patients. ref name hyper The researchers concluded ... more details
in the basal ganglia, especially the putamen . ref name Castelo1 Citation last1 Castelo first1 JMB last2 Courtney first2 MG last3 Melrose first3 RJ last4 Stern first4 CE title Putamen hypertrophy in nondemented ... Ances Specifically, lower motor speeds were found to correlate with hypertrophy of the right putamen ... more details
Infobox Brain Name Superior longitudinal fasciculus Latin fasciculus longitudinalis superior cerebri GraySubject 189 GrayPage 844 Image Gray751.png Caption Diagram showing principal systems of association fibers in the cerebrum. Sup. longitudinal fasc. labeled at center top. Image2 Caption2 IsPartOf Components Artery Vein BrainInfoType ancil BrainInfoNumber 537 MeshName MeshNumber DorlandsPre f 03 DorlandsSuf 12356082 The superior longitudinal fasciculus also called the superior longitudinal fascicle or SLF is a pair of long bi directional bundles of neurons connecting the front and the back of the cerebrum. Each association fiber bundle is lateral to the centrum ovale of a cerebral hemisphere and connects the frontal, occipital, parietal, and temporal lobe s. The neurons pass from the frontal lobe through the operculum to the posterior end of the lateral sulcus where numerous neurons radiate into the occipital lobe and other neurons turn downward and forward around the putamen and radiate to anterior portions of the temporal lobe. Anatomy The SLF is composed of four distinct components ref Makris pages 1 2 ref SLF I, SLF II, SLF III, and arcuate fascicle AF . In humans, these four components are bundled together although they are functionally separate. In non human primates, the SLF and AF are anatomically separate and have separate trajectories. SLF I SLF I is the dorsal component and originates in the superior and medial parietal cortex , passes around the cingulate sulcus and in the superior parietal and frontal white matter, and terminates in the dorsal and medial cortex of the frontal lobe Brodmann 6, 8, and 9 and in the supplementary motor cortex M II . ref Makris page 11 ref SLF II SLF II is the major component of SLF and originates in the caudal inferior parietal cortex and terminates in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex Brodmann 6, 8 and 46 . SLF III SLF III is the ventral component and originates in the supramarginal gyrus rostral portion of the inferior ... more details
ganglia are the striatum , or neostriatum composed of the caudate nucleus caudate and putamen ... Cerebral cortex cortex both hemispheres , Caudate , Putamen , Globus pallidus pallidum hr li Thalamus ... capsule . They named these two masses the caudate nucleus and putamen . More recent anatomists ... and putamen have been identified, but these are taken to be consequences of the fact that each ... structure such as the caudate nucleus and putamen . The term basal comes from the fact that most ... neurologique volume 150 issue 8 9 pages 543 54 year 1994 pmid 7754290 ref For many years, the putamen and the caudate nucleus were not associated with each other. Instead, the putamen was associated ... of structures consisting of the caudate nucleus, the putamen, and the mass linking them anatomical ... more details
Putamen br The putamen is also part of the basal ganglia and can be involved in hemiballismus due to the fact ... in the putamen contralateral to the movements as well as the globus pallidus and caudate nucleus ... more details
other uses Infobox Anatomy Name Grey matter Latin substantia grisea GraySubject GrayPage Image spinal nerve.svg Caption The formation of the spinal nerve from the dorsal and ventral roots. Gray matter labeled at center right. Image2 Grey matter and white matter very high mag.jpg Caption2 Micrograph showing grey matter, with the characteristic neuron neuronal cell bodies right of image dark shade of pink , and white matter with its characteristic fine meshwork like appearance left of image lighter shade of pink . HPS stain . System MeshName MeshNumber Dorlands nine 100008780 DorlandsID Gray matter Code Terminologia Anatomica TA A14.1.00.002 Grey matter or gray matter is a major component of the central nervous system , consisting of neuron al Soma biology cell bodies , neuropil dendrites and myelin unmyelinated axons , glial cell s astroglia and oligodendrocytes and Capillary capillaries . Grey matter contains neural cell bodies, in contrast to white matter , which does not and mostly contains myelinated axon tracts. ref name Purves cite book author Purves, Dale, George J. Augustine, David Fitzpatrick, William C. Hall, Anthony Samuel LaMantia, James O. McNamara, and Leonard E. White title Neuroscience. 4th ed. publisher Sinauer Associates pages 15 16 year 2008 isbn 978 0 87893 697 7 ref The color difference arises mainly from the whiteness of myelin. In living tissue, grey matter actually has a grey brown color, which comes from capillary blood vessels and neuronal cell bodies. Function Grey matter is made up of neuronal cell bodies. The grey matter includes regions of the brain involved in muscle control, sensory perception such as seeing and hearing, memory, emotions, and speech. Distribution Grey matter is distributed at the surface of the cerebral hemisphere s cerebral cortex and of the cerebellum cerebellar cortex , as well as in the depths of the cerebrum thalamus hypothalamus subthalamus , basal ganglia putamen , globus pallidus , nucleus accumbens septal nucl ... more details
Infobox neuron neuron name Medium spiny neuron caption neuron Plated neurons from the nucleus accumbens . Medium spiny neurons are shown in red. location Basal Ganglia function inhibitory projection neuron neurotranmitter GABA morphology Spiny neuron afferents Cortex, thalamus, & brain stem efferents Other basal ganglia NeuroLex Medium Spiny Neuron NeuroLexID nifext 141 The medium spiny neurons are a special type of inhibitory cells representing approximately 90 of the neuron s within the corpus striatum of the basal ganglia . They play a key role in initiating and controlling movements of the body, limbs, and eyes. Appearance and location The medium spiny neurons are medium sized neurons with large and extensive dendritic trees. Each branch of the these dendritic trees is packed with numerous small spines which receive synaptic inputs from neurons outside the striatum. The corpus striatum consisting of Caudate nucleus nucleus caudatus , putamen, and nucleus accumbens is the main input station of the basal ganglia. Medium spiny neurons in this structure receive cortical, Thalamus thalamic and Brain stem brain stem inputs. In fact, the whole human neocortex except the primary visual and primary auditory cortex project to the striatum. Within the striatum, there are at least two different types of medium spiny neurons. These types were first distinguished because of the different neuropeptides they contain. About half the spiny cells express Substance P, dynorphin and dopamine D1 receptors and project to the internal globus pallidus and substantia nigra pars reticulata the direct pathways whereas the other half express enkephalin and the dopamine D2 receptor and project to the external globus pallidus the indirect pathway ref Wilson, C.J. 2004 Basal Ganglia In G. M. Shepherd ed. The Synaptic Organization of the Brain, 5th Edition. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 361 414. ref . With different types of immunocytochemical or histochemical staining one can identify s ... more details
PBB geneid 80704 Thiamine transporter 2 ThTr 2 , also known as solute carrier family 19 member 3 , is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC19A3 gene . ref name entrez cite web title Entrez Gene solute carrier family 19 url http www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov sites entrez?Db gene&Cmd ShowDetailView&TermToSearch 80704 accessdate ref ref name pmid11136550 cite journal author Eudy JD, Spiegelstein O, Barber RC, Wlodarczyk BJ, Talbot J, Finnell RH title Identification and characterization of the human and mouse SLC19A3 gene a novel member of the reduced folate family of micronutrient transporter genes journal Mol. Genet. Metab. volume 71 issue 4 pages 581 90 year 2000 month December pmid 11136550 doi 10.1006 mgme.2000.3112 url issn ref ref name pmid15871139 cite journal author Zeng WQ, Al Yamani E, Acierno JS, Slaugenhaupt S, Gillis T, MacDonald ME, Ozand PT, Gusella JF title Biotin responsive basal ganglia disease maps to 2q36.3 and is due to mutations in SLC19A3 journal Am. J. Hum. Genet. volume 77 issue 1 pages 16 26 year 2005 month July pmid 15871139 pmc 1226189 doi 10.1086 431216 url issn ref SLC19A3 is a thiamine transporter. Function ThTr 2 is a ubiquitously expressed transmembrane thiamine transporter that lacks folate transport activity. ref name entrez Clinical significance Mutations in this gene cause biotin responsive basal ganglia disease BBGD a recessive disorder manifested in childhood that progresses to chronic encephalopathy , dystonia , quadriplegia quadriparesis , and death if untreated. Patients with BBGD have bilateral necrosis in the head of the caudate nucleus and in the putamen. Administration of high doses of biotin in the early progression of the disorder eliminates pathological symptoms while delayed treatment results in residual paraparesis, mild mental retardation, or dystonia. Administration of thiamine is ineffective in the treatment of this disorder. Experiments have failed to show that this protein can transport biotin. Mutations in this g ... more details
, 2010 and, similarly, the caudate and putamen were found to decrease in volume in a longitudinal study ... with progressive loss of volume of the putamen. Schizophr Res. 2009 Sep 113 2 3 241 5. Epub 2009 ... more details
across both languages whereas, differences in neural activation are only observed in the left putamen when individuals repeat words in their second language. The putamen , therefore, plays a critical ... activation is observed in the left putamen when words are generated in the second language i.e. increased rCBF in left putamen resulting from L2 L1 subtractions . Even when the second language is acquired ... subcortical structures i.e. putamen and head of caudate nucleus . This pattern is explained in terms ... more details
to classify basal nuclei, but agree on at least three the caudate nucleus , putamen , and globus pallidus . The putamen and globus pallidus are also collectively known as the lentiform nucleus, because together they form a lens shaped body. The putamen and caudate nucleus are also collectively called ... more details
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