chembox verifiedrevid 443383198 ImageFile ImageSize IUPACName aluminium II oxide OtherNames Section1 Chembox Identifiers ChemSpiderID Ref chemspidercite correct chemspider ChemSpiderID 125481 InChI 1 Al.O rAlO c1 2 InChIKey AIRCTMFFNKZQPN IPBSAJSUAY StdInChI Ref stdinchicite correct chemspider StdInChI 1S Al.O StdInChIKey Ref stdinchicite correct chemspider StdInChIKey AIRCTMFFNKZQPN UHFFFAOYSA N CASNo Ref cascite correct ?? CASNo 14457 64 8 PubChem ChEBI Ref ebicite correct EBI ChEBI 30128 SMILES O Al Section2 Chembox Properties Formula AlO MolarMass 42.98 g mol Appearance Density MeltingPt BoilingPt Solubility Section3 Chembox Hazards MainHazards FlashPt Autoignition Aluminium II oxide or aluminium monoxide is a compound of aluminium and oxygen with the chemical formula AlO. It has been detected in the gas phase after explosion of aluminized grenades in the upper atmosphere ref cite journal author D. C. Tyte title Red B2 A2 Band System of Aluminium Monoxide doi 10.1038 202383a0 journal Nature volume 202 issue 4930 year 1964 page 383 bibcode 1964Natur.202..383T ref ref cite journal author D. C. Tyte title The dissociation energy of aluminium monoxide doi 10.1088 0370 1328 92 4 339 journal Proc. Phys. Soc. volume 92 issue 4 year 1967 page 1134 bibcode 1967PPS....92.1134T ref ref cite journal author Johnson E. R. & Low C. H. title Further spectral observations of grenade glow clouds in the lower thermosphere bibcode 1967AuJPh..20..577J journal Australian Journal of Physics volume 20 year 1967 page 577 ref and in stellar absorption spectra ref cite journal author Merrill, P. W., Deutsch, A. J., & Keenan, P. C. title Absorption Spectra of M Type Mira Variables doi 10.1086 147348 journal Astrophysical Journal volume 136 year 1962 page 21 bibcode 1962ApJ...136...21M ref References reflist See also Aluminium oxide Aluminium I oxide Aluminium compounds Category Aluminium compounds Category Oxides inorganic compound stub fa II zh ... more details
that propagate up to the lower thermosphere may be carried in an atmospheric waveguide , ref name isbn0 .... year 1977 title Heating of the lower thermosphere by the dissipation of acoustic waves journal Journal ... into the lower thermosphere where it is dissipated between 110 and 140 km. ref They may also be trapped ... phase velocity may be refracted in the thermosphere or the stratosphere.... The presence of these tropospheric ... are only generated along the dominant wind directions. The thermosphere will frequently have two ... modes it experiences. Rays directed vertically toward the zenith are dissipated in the thermosphere ... more details
wiktionary sphere A sphere is an object shaped like a ball and can also be used to refer to a sphere like region or List of algebraic structures shell . Sphere may also refer to tocright In mathematics Ball mathematics , the volume inside a sphere n sphere n sphere , the set of points a fixed distance from a central point in n 1 dimensional space In sociology Public sphere , an area where individuals can discuss social problems In astronomy Celestial sphere , the astronomical description of the sky Armillary sphere , a physical model of the celestial sphere Celestial spheres or planetary spheres, refer to a geocentric model of the universe and the associated postulate of a Musica Universalis Music of the Spheres Hill sphere , the spherical region around an astronomical body where the primary gravitational influence on an orbiting object is that body Sphere of influence astrodynamics , similar to the Hill sphere, but smaller, only about 60 of the radius Sphere of influence astronomy , a region around a supermassive black hole In Earth science planetary science Atmosphere Earth s atmosphere Celestial body atmosphere s Troposphere Stratosphere Mesosphere Thermosphere Exosphere Magnetosphere Biosphere Anthroposphere Hydrosphere Cryosphere sometimes included in the hydrosphere Geosphere Lithosphere Pedosphere Soil Crust geology Mantle geology Asthenosphere Mesosphere mantle Planetary core Inner core Outer core In stellar physics The layers of a star, in particular of the Sun Solar core Radiation zone Convection zone Photosphere Chromosphere Corona In geology A type of spherical stone Stone balls Artificial stone spheres Petrosphere s Lapidary spheres Stone Round shot cannonballs Spherical stone shot for Trebuchet s Stone spheres of Costa Rica Carved Stone Balls of Scotland Natural stone spheres Spherulites Megaspherulites Concretions cannonball Spheroidal weathering that creates spherical corestones Figurative metaphorical Noosphere , the sphere of human thought and or c ... more details
File Wake shield facility.jpg right thumb 220px Deployment of the WSF using the Space Shuttle robotic arm. NASA image. http www.nasaimages.org luna servlet detail nasaNAS 7 7 43352 147196 View of the Wake Shield Facility ba Night period STS 60 photo Wake Shield Facility is an experimental science platform that was placed in Low Earth Orbit low earth orbit by the Space Shuttle . It is a 3.7 meter 12 ft diameter, free flying stainless steel disk. The WSF is deployed in the wake of the Space Shuttle at an orbital altitude of over 300 kilometers 186 mi , within the thermosphere , where the atmosphere is exceedingly tenuous. The forward edge of the WSF disk redirects atmospheric and other particles around the sides, leaving an ultra vacuum in its wake. The resulting vacuum is used to study epitaxial Thin film deposition film growth . The WSF has flown into space three times, on board shuttle flights STS 60 , STS 69 and STS 80 . During STS 60, some hardware issues were experienced and as a result the WSF was only deployed at the end of the shuttle s Remote Manipulator System robotic arm . During the later missions the WSF was deployed as a free flying platform in the wake of the shuttle. These flights proved the vacuum wake concept, and realized the space epitaxy concept by growing the first ever crystalline semiconductor thin films in the vacuum of space http www.sciencedirect.com science? ob ArticleURL& udi B6V1N 42GDGKN 9& user 10& origUdi B6TW4 44D2CDR 5& fmt high& coverDate 01 2F02 2F2001& rdoc 1& orig article& acct C000050221& version 1& urlVersion 0& userid 10&md5 e30617536478ffd83bda0a133828e63a . These included gallium arsenide GaAs and aluminum gallium arsenide AlGaAs depositions. These experiments have been used to develop better photocell s and thin films http www.sciencedirect.com science? ob ArticleURL& udi B6TJ6 3YF9X43 1G& user 10& coverDate 02 2F29 2F2000& alid 922552806& rdoc 1& fmt high& orig mlkt& cdi 5302& sort v& st 17& docanchor &view c& ct 24& ... more details
See also Index of earth science articles The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to earth science Earth science &ndash all embracing term for the science s related to the planet Earth planet Earth . ref http wordnetweb.princeton.edu perl webwn?s Earth science&sub Search WordNet&o2 &o0 1&o7 &o5 &o1 1&o6 &o4 &o3 &h 0 Wordnet Search Earth science ref It is also known as geoscience, the geosciences or the Earth sciences, and is arguably a special case in planetary science , the Earth being the only known life bearing planet. Earth s spheres Image Seawifs global biosphere.jpg thumb 300px A false color composite of global oceanic and terrestrial photoautotroph abundance from September 1997 to August 2000, showing Earth s biosphere. Provided by the SeaWiFS Project, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center and ORBIMAGE . The Earth s spheres are the many spheres into which the planet Earth is divided. The four most often recognized are the atmosphere , the biosphere , the hydrosphere and the geosphere . As a whole, the system is sometimes referred to as an ecosphere. Listed roughly from outermost to innermost the named spheres of the Earth are Magnetosphere Atmosphere , the gases that surround the Earth its air By altitude Exosphere Exobase Ionosphere Thermopause Thermosphere Mesopause Mesosphere Stratopause Stratosphere Ozone layer Tropopause Troposphere Planetary boundary layer By air turbulence Heterosphere Turbopause Homosphere Biosphere , all life on Earth Anthroposphere Noosphere rare Hydrosphere , all water found on, under, and over the surface of Earth Cryosphere sometimes Pedosphere Geosphere Lithosphere Crust geology Asthenosphere Mesosphere mantle Mesosphere Earth s mantle Earth s core Inner core Outer core Branches of earth science Geology Geology Economic geology Engineering geology Environmental geology Quaternary geology Planetary geology Petroleum geology Historical geology Hydrogeology Structural geology Geochemistry Geochronology Geoma ... more details
Image Living with a star LWS Logo.png thumb The current insignia. Living With a Star LWS is a NASA scientific program to study those aspects of the connected Sun Earth system that directly affect life and society. LWS is a crosscutting initiative with goals and objectives relevant to NASA s Exploration Initiative, as well as to NASA s Strategic Enterprises. The program is managed by the Heliophysics Division of NASA s Science Mission Directorate. LWS is composed of three major components Scientific investigations on spaceflight platforms study different regions of the Sun, interplanetary space , and geospace an applied science program Space Environment Testbeds where protocols and components are tested and a Targeted Research and Technology Program. Spaceflight Segment The first two science missions are now in development Solar Dynamics Observatory SDO and Radiation Belt Storm Probes RBSP . The SDO mission launched on February 11, 2010. ref http lws.gsfc.nasa.gov missions sdo sdo schedule.htm Living With a Star Program Solar Dynamics Observatory Mission Schedule Bot generated title ref Image Mission Overview.jpg thumb 360px The Radiation Belt Storm Probes . Image Solar Dynamics Observatory.png thumb left 200px The Solar Dynamics Observatory . Science requirements and conceptual mission implementation have been defined for the Ionosphere Thermosphere Storm Probes ITSP and the Solar Sentinels . Space Environment Testbeds SET uses existing data and new data from low cost SET missions to achieve the following Define the mechanisms for induced space environment and effects reduce uncertainties in the definitions of the induced environment and effects on spacecraft and their payloads and to improve design and operations guidelines and test protocols so that spacecraft anomalies and failures due to environmental effects during operations are reduced. Targeted Research and Technology TR&T With the 2001 inception of the LWS Program, new opportunities were created for a syste ... more details
Unreferenced date June 2009 File Picture taken at aprox. 100,000 feet above Oregon by Justin Hamel and Chris Thompson.jpg thumb Picture taken at approximately convert 100000 ft abbr on above Oregon. Near space is the region of Earth s atmosphere that lies between 65,000 and 325,000&ndash 350,000 feet 20 to 100 km above sea level , encompassing the stratosphere , mesosphere , and thermosphere . A more understandable definition would be above where a commercial airliner flies but below the realm of an orbiting satellite . The area is of interest for military surveillance purposes, as well as to commercial interests for communications. Currently, craft that fly in near space nearcraft are generally high altitude balloon s, blimps non rigid airship s and sounding rocket s. Near space is also the realm of an activity known as Amateur Radio High Altitude ARHAB Ballooning . Recently, due to falling costs of GPS technology, Amateur Radio High Altitude Ballooning has become a more common hobby with many amateurs launching balloons in many different locations around the world. In the United States , these balloons are regulated by the Federal Aviation Administration under FAR101 restrictions. The terms near space and upper atmosphere are generally considered synonymous. However, some sources distinguish between the two. Where such a distinction is made, only the layers closest to the Karman line are called near space, while only the remaining layers between the lower atmosphere and near space are called the upper atmosphere. Exploration Near space was first explored in the 1930s. The early flights flew to the edge of space without computers, spacesuits, and with only crude life support systems. Notable people who flew in near space were Jean Piccard and his wife Jeannette, on the nearcraft The Century of Progress . Later exploration was mainly carried out by unmanned nearcraft, although there have been skydiving attempts made from high altitude balloons. Use in space tra ... more details
Infobox spacecraft Name Explorer 9 Image File Explorer 9.jpg 220px Explorer 9 before launch Caption Explorer 9 before launch Organisation NASA Mission Type Scientific Launch Date 16 February 1961 br 13 05 00 Carrier Rocket Scout X 1 Flight Number ST 4 Launch Site Wallops Flight Facility Wallops Wallops Flight Facility Launch Area 3 LA 3 Mission Duration Air density Decay 9 April 1964 COSPAR ID 1961 Delta 1 nolink on Orbit regime Medium Earth orbit Medium Earth Inclination 38.8 Apoapsis convert 2581 km Periapsis convert 635 km Orbital Period 118.4 minutes Explorer 9 , known as S 56A before launch, was an United States American satellite which was launched in 1961 to study the density and composition of the upper thermosphere and lower exosphere . ref cite web url http history.nasa.gov explorer.html title Explorer Spacecraft Series publisher NASA History Division first Woody last Smith accessdate 17 June 2010 ref It was a reflight of the failed S 56 satellite S 56 mission, and consisted of a convert 7 kg adj on , convert 3.7 m adj on balloon which was deployed into a medium Earth orbit . ref name EA cite web url http www.astronautix.com craft s56.htm title S 56 first Mark last Wade publisher Encyclopedia Astronautica accessdate 17 June 2010 ref The mission was conducted by NASA s Langley Research Center . File Scout X 1 with Explorer 9 Feb 16 1961.JPG 150px thumb left The launch of Explorer 9 Explorer 9 was launched from Wallops Flight Facility Launch Area 3 Launch Area 3 at the Wallops Flight Facility Wallops Flight Center , atop a Scout X 1 rocket with the serial number ST 4. It was the first spacecraft launched from Wallops Island to achieve orbit, with one previous attempt having failed. The launch occurred at 13 05 00 UTC on 16 February 1961, and resulted in Explorer 9 being deployed into a orbit with an apsis apogee of convert 2581 km , a apsis perigee of convert 635 km , 38.8 degrees of inclination and a period of 118.4 minutes. ref name SATCAT cite web url htt ... more details
, defined as a layer where heating from the warmer troposphere and thermosphere is balanced ... isbn 0120885891 pages 483 502 chapter Triton year 2007 ref Higher regions include the thermosphere ... bibcode 1992AdSpR..12..113L ref In the thermosphere the temperature rises reaching a constant value ... more details
The F region of the ionosphere is home to the F layer of ionization, also called the Appleton layer , after the English physicist Edward Appleton . As with other ionospheric sectors, layer implies a concentration of plasma, while region is the area that contains the said layer. The F region contains ionized gases at a height of around 150 800 km above sea level , placing it in the Earth s thermosphere , a hot region in the upper atmosphere , and also in the heterosphere , where chemical composition varies with height. Generally speaking, the F region has the highest concentration of free electrons and ions anywhere in the atmosphere. It may be thought of as comprising two layers, the F1 and F2 layers. The F region is located directly above the E region formerly the Kennelly Heaviside layer and below the protonosphere . It acts as a dependable reflector of radio signals as it is not affected by atmospheric conditions, although its ionic composition varies with the sunspot cycle. It reflects normal incident frequencies at or below the critical frequency approximately 10 MHz and partially absorbs waves of higher frequency. The F region is the region of the ionosphere which is very important for HF radio wave propagation. This F region is very anomalous in nature. F1 and F2 Layers The F1 layer is the lower sector of the F layer and exists from about 150 to 220 km above the surface of the Earth and only during daylight hours. It is composed of a mixture of molecular ions O sub 2 sub sup sup and NO sup sup , and atomic ions O sup sup . Above the F1 region, atomic oxygen becomes the dominant constituent because lighter particles tend to occupy higher altitudes above the turbopause at 100 km . This atomic oxygen provides the O sup sup atomic ions that make up the F2 layer. The F1 layer has approximately 5 × 10 sup 5 sup e cm sup 3 sup free electrons per cubic centimeter at noontime and minimum sunspot activity, and increases to roughly 2 × 10 s ... more details
confusing date April 2011 Image EarthAtmosphereBig.jpg thumb 100px right Earth atmosphere diagram showing the exosphere and other layers. The layers are to scale. From Earth s surface to the top of the stratosphere 50km is just under 1 of Earth s radius. The exosphere lang grc lang grc Latn x outside, external, beyond , lang grc lang grc Latn spha ra sphere is the uppermost layer of Atmosphere of Earth Earth s atmosphere . An upward traveling molecule moving through the exosphere fast enough to attain escape velocity can escape to space with a low chance of collisions if it is moving below escape velocity it will be prevented from escaping from the celestial body by gravity . In either case, such a molecule is unlikely to collide with another molecule due to the exosphere s low density . The term is also used for extremely thin atmospheres such as that of Saturn s moons Rhea moon Rhea and Dione moon Dione . ref http saturn.jpl.nasa.gov news cassinifeatures feature20120302 Cassini Detects Hint of Fresh Air at Dione , Cassini Solstice Mission, JPL, Mar. 02, 2012 ref Earth s exosphere The main gas es within the Earth s exosphere are the lightest gases, mainly hydrogen , with some helium , carbon dioxide , and atomic oxygen near the exobase. The exosphere is the last layer before outer space . Since there is no clear boundary between outer space and the exosphere, the exosphere is sometimes considered a part of outer space. Lower boundary The altitude of its lower boundary, known as the thermopause and exobase , ranges from about convert 250 to 500 km lk on depending on solar activity. Citation needed date January 2009 Its lower boundary at the edge of the thermosphere has sometimes been estimated to be convert 500 to 1000 km abbr on above the Earth s surface. Citation needed date January 2009 The exobase is also called the critical level , the lowest altitude of the exosphere, and is typically defined in one of two ways The height above which there are neg ... more details
Solareclipse200 db Infobox Solar eclipse2 2005Oct03 Image Eclipse EastAfrica AMO 20051003.jpg thumb right upright Satellite image of the eclipse over East Africa. Red dots show where fires were burning in vegetated areas. An annular solar eclipse occurred on October 3, 2005 with a magnitude of 0.958. Annular solar eclipse summary It was visible from a narrow corridor through the Iberian peninsula and Africa . A Solar eclipse partial eclipse was seen from the much broader path of the Moon s penumbra , including all of Europe , Africa and southwestern Asia . The path of the eclipse began in the North Atlantic ocean at 08 41 universal time UT . The antumbra reached Madrid, Spain at 08 56 UT, lasting four minutes and eleven seconds and 90 of the Sun was covered by the Moon. The antumbra reached Algiers at 09 05 UT, then passed through Tunisia and Libya before heading southeast through Sudan, Kenya and Somalia. The shadow then moved out over the Indian Ocean until it terminated at sunset, 12 22 UT. ref name espenak cite web first Fred last Espenak title Annular Solar Eclipse of 2005 October 03 publisher NASA GSFC accessdate 2009 09 23 url http eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov SEmono ASE2005 ASE2005.html ref The maximum eclipse duration occurred in central Sudan at 10 31 42 UT, where it lasted for 4m 31s when the Sun was 71 above the horizon. ref name espenak The theoretical maximum duration for a modern solar eclipse is 7 minutes, 32 seconds. ref cite journal last Meeus first J. month December year 2003 title The maximum possible duration of a total solar eclipse journal Journal of the British Astronomical Association volume 113 issue 6 pages 343 348 bibcode 2003JBAA..113..343M accessdate 2009 09 23 ref The motion of the shadow was supersonic and it generated gravity wave s that were detectable as disturbances in the ionosphere . These gravity waves originate in the thermosphere at an altitude of about 180 km. Because of the obscuration of solar radiation, the ion ization level dro ... more details
as lowest layer , stratosphere which includes the ozone layer , mesosphere , thermosphere which ... the thermosphere at an altitude of 100 km, is commonly used to define the boundary between ... more details
of Venus extends from 65 km to 120 km in height, and the thermosphere begins at around ... between the mesophere and thermosphere and is located between 95 120 km, temperature grows up to a constant about 300 400 K 27 127 C value prevalent in the thermosphere. ref name Bertaux2007 In contrast the nightside Venusian thermosphere is the coldest place on Venus with temperature ... patterns in the upper mesosphere and thermosphere of Venus are completely different from those in the lower ... K 43 C is far higher than the typical temperature found in the nightside thermosphere 100 K ... upper mesosphere and thermosphere of Venus is also the source of non LTE non local thermodynamic ... temperature of the nightside thermosphere. ref name Drossart2007 The Venus Express probe has shown ... 120 300 km. ref name Patzold2007 The ionosphere almost coincides with the thermosphere. The high ... more details
and ionosphere Ionosphere of Venus Atmosphere of Uranus Thermosphere and ionosphere Ionosphere ... Horizons Soft gamma repeater TIMED Thermosphere Ionosphere Mesosphere Energetics and Dynamics International ... more details
File Newton Cannon.svg thumb right An orbiting cannon ball showing various Sub orbital spaceflight sub orbital and Planetary orbit orbital possibilities. File Orbits around earth scale diagram.svg thumb Various earth orbits drawn to scale the inner cyan light blue ring represents low Earth orbit LEO . File Sunrise To Sunset Aboard The ISS.OGG thumb Roughly half an orbit of the ISS A low Earth orbit LEO is generally defined as an orbit below an altitude of 2,000 km. Given the rapid orbital decay of objects below approximately 200 km, the commonly accepted definition for LEO is between 160 2,000 km 100 1,240 miles above the Earth Earth s surface. ref cite web url http www.iadc online.org docs pub IADC 101502.Mit.Guidelines.pdf format PDF title IADC Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines publisher Inter Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee date 15 October 2002 ref ref cite web url http www.orbitaldebris.jsc.nasa.gov library NSS1740 14 nss1740 14 1995.pdf format PDF title NASA Safety Standard 1740.14, Guidelines and Assessment Procedures for Limiting Orbital Debris publisher Office of Safety and Mission Assurance date 1 August 1995 ref The speed needed to achieve a stable low earth orbit is about 7.8 km s, but reduces with altitude. The delta v needed to achieve low earth orbit starts around 9.4km s. With the exception of the lunar flights of the Apollo program , all human spaceflight s have either been orbital in LEO or sub orbital. The altitude record for a human spaceflight in LEO was Gemini 11 with an Apsis apogee of 1,374.1 km. Orbital characteristics Objects in LEO encounter atmospheric drag in the form of gases in the thermosphere approximately 80 500 km up or exosphere approximately 500 km and up , depending on orbit height. LEO is an orbit around Earth between the atmosphere and below the inner Van Allen radiation belt . The altitude is usually not less than 300 km because that would be impractical due to the larger atmosphe ... more details
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