context date September 2008 Unreferenced date March 2008 The most common chemical equilibrium systems involve reactants and products in the same phase either all gases or all solutions. However, it is also possible to get equilibria between substances in different phases, such as two liquids that do not mix are immiscible . Partition equilibria are described by Nernst law. Example For example, ammonia NH sub 3 sub is soluble in both water aq and the organic solvent trichloromethane CHCl sub 3 sub two immiscible solvents. If ammonia is first dissolved in water, and then an equal volume of trichloromethane is added, and the two liquids shaken together, the following equilibrium is established K sub c sub NH sub 3 sub sub CHCl3 sub NH sub 3 aq sub where K sub c sub is the equilibrium constant The equilibrium concentrations of ammonia in each layer can be established by titration with standard acid solution. It can thus be determined that K sub c sub remains constant, with a value of 0.4 in this case. Partition coefficient main Partition coefficient This particular kind of equilibrium constant measures how a substance distributes or partitions itself between two immiscible solvents. It is called the partition coefficient or distribution coefficient. Polar and non polar substances Substances that are Ionic compound ionic or Chemical polarity polar are more soluble in water than in non polar organic solvents and vice versa. Partition equilibrium chromatography Partition equilibrium chromatography is a type of chromatography that is typically used in gas chromatography GC and high performance liquid chromatography HPLC . The Stationary phase chemistry stationary phase in GC is a high boiling liquid bonded to solid surface and the mobile phase is a gas. See also Liquid liquid extraction Category Equilibrium chemistry Category Chromatography Category Gas chromatography chemistry stub ... more details
unreferenced date March 2011 Equilibrium Gel is made from a synthetic clay called Laponite . Unlike other gel s, it maintains the same consistency throughout its structure and is stable, which means it does not separate into sections of solid mass and those of more liquid mass. Equilibrium gel filtration liquid chromatography is a technique used for the quantitation of ligand binding. Category Sculpture materials material stub ... more details
Infobox equilibrium name Epsilon equilibrium supersetof Nash Equilibrium usedfor stochastic game s In game theory , an epsilon equilibrium , or near Nash equilibrium, is a strategy profile that approximately satisfies the condition of Nash equilibrium . Definition Given a game and a real non negative parameter , a strategy profile is said to be an equilibrium if it is not possible for any player to gain more than in expected payoff by unilaterally deviating from his strategy Citation needed date March 2012 . Every Nash Equilibrium is equivalent to a equilibrium where 0. Formally, let math G N,A A 1 times cdots times A N, u A rightarrow reals N math be a N player game with action sets math A i math for each player and utility function u. A vector of strategies math sigma in Delta Delta 1 times cdots times Delta N math is an math epsilon math Nash Equilibrium for G if math u i sigma geq u i sigma i , sigma i epsilon math for all math sigma i in Delta i, i in N math Example The notion of equilibria is important in the theory of stochastic game s of potentially infinite duration. There are simple examples of stochastic games with no Nash equilibrium but with an equilibrium for any strictly bigger than 0. Perhaps the simplest such example is the following variant of Matching Pennies , suggested by Everett. Player 1 hides a penny and Player 2 must guess if it is heads up or tails up. If Player 2 guesses correctly, he wins the penny from Player 1 and the game ends. If Player 2 incorrectly guesses that the penny is heads up, the game ends with payoff zero to both players ... from previous stages is an equilibrium for the game. The expected payoff of Player 2 ... 2 that can guarantee an expected payoff of exactly 1. Therefore, the game has no Nash equilibrium ... prisoner s dilemma for T periods, where the payoff is averaged over the T periods. The only Nash equilibrium ..., 23 , 225 237, 1981. Game theory DEFAULTSORT Epsilon Equilibrium Category Game theory he ... more details
Unreferenced stub auto yes date December 2009 A genetic equilibrium is at hand for an allele in a gene pool when the gene frequency frequency of that allele is not changing i.e. when it is not evolving . For this to be the case, evolutionary forces acting upon the allele must be equal and opposite. The only basic requirement is that the population be large enough that the effects of genetic drift are minimized. For more see heterozygote advantage , fixation , mutation selection balance , negative frequency dependent selection . There may be inbreeding as this reduces heterozygosity but does not cause evolution. No gene mutations Large population size Limited to no immigration, emigration, or migration genetic flow Gene of interest has no effect on survival reproduction, and there is no natural selection Mating is random panmixis See also Hardy Weinberg equilibrium . DEFAULTSORT Genetic Equilibrium Category Population genetics Genetics stub Evolution stub ... more details
A population is in Malthusian equilibrium when all of its Production, costs, and pricing production is used only for subsistence . Malthusian equilibrium is a stability theory locally stable and a dynamic equilibrium . See also Thomas Malthus &mdash See this article for further exposition. An Essay on the Principle of Population Malthusian growth model Malthusian trap Population dynamics References Citation last Pingle first Mark title Introducing Dynamic Analysis Using Malthus s Principle of Population journal Journal of Economic Education date Winter 2003 volume 34 pages 3&ndash 20 issue 1 doi 10.1080 00220480309595196 Category Population Category Demography Category Mathematical modeling economics stub ... more details
tone date April 2011 Radiative equilibrium is one of the several requirements for thermodynamic equilibrium , but it can occur in the absence of thermodynamic equilibrium. There are various types of radiative equilibrium, which is itself a kind of dynamic equilibrium . Definitions of radiative equilibrium There are several types of radiative equilibrium. Prevost s 1791 definitions An important early ... 1791 definition is as follows blockquote Absolute equilibrium of free heat is the state of this fluid in a portion of space which receives as much of it as it lets escape. Relative equilibrium ... quantities of heat, and which moreover are in absolute equilibrium, or experience precisely equal ... temperature, and next to one another, is at the same time in the two species of equilibrium. The quotations ... s exchange principle. Pointwise radiative equilibrium Following Planck 1914 , ref name Planck 1914 ... math h nu nabla cdot mathbf F nu math . They define pointwise monochromatic radiative equilibrium by math nabla cdot mathbf F nu 0 math at every point of the region that is in radiative equilibrium. They define pointwise radiative equilibrium by math h int 0 infty h nu d nu 0 math at every point of the region that is in radiative equilibrium. This means that, at every point of the region of space that is in pointwise radiative equilibrium, the total, for all frequencies of radiation, interconversion of energy between thermal radiation and energy content in matter is nil. Pointwise radiative equilibrium is closely related to Prevost s absolute radiative equilibrium. Mihalas and Weibel Mihalas ... the matter is not moving. They also consider moving media. Approximate pointwise radiative equilibrium ... from Schwarzschild s 1906 approximate concept, but is more precisely stated. Radiative exchange equilibrium ... refers to a condition of thermodynamic equilibrium , in which any two bodies or elements of bodies ... exchange equilibrium can also be used to refer to two specified regions of space that exchange equal ... more details
Radner equilibrium is an economic concept defined by economist Roy Radner in the context of general equilibrium . The concept is an extension of the Arrow Debreu equilibrium and the base for the first consistent incomplete markets framework. The departure from the Arrow Debreu framework are two fold 1 uncertainty is explicitly modelled through a tree structure or equivalent filtration rending passage of time and resolution of uncertainty explicit, 2 budget feasibility is no longer defined as affordability but through explicit trading of financial instruments. Financial instruments are used to allow insurance and inter temporal wealth transfers across spot markets at each nodes of the tree. Economic agents face a sequence of budget sets, one at each date state. Item 2 introduces the concept of incomplete markets, formulated in terms of net trade, the budget set is contained in a half space intersecting the positive cone of contingent goods at zero net trade only this is called absence of arbitrage . This is because without transaction cost agents will demand an infinite amount of any trade promising positive consumption in some state and no negative net trade against that in any other good and state. This half space, containing the budget set and separating it from the free lunch cone, corresponds to a half line of positive prices. However potentially if not enough instruments are present, the full half space may not be spanned by trading the instruments and the budgets set may be strictly smaller. In such a configuration markets are said to be incomplete, and there are several ways to separate the budget set from the positive cone sometimes called the free lunch cone . This means that several price systems become admissible. At a Radner equilibrium like the Arrow Debreu equilibrium under uncertainty, perfect consensual foresight is used. It is what is called a rational ... equilibrium econ stub Category General equilibrium and disequilibrium ... more details
Thermal equilibrium is a theoretical physical concept, used especially in theoretical texts, that means ..., pages 308 309. ref Some writers use the term thermal equilibrium in a different sense. They mean by it that the spatial ... distribution of temperature time invariant. Thermal equilibrium does not mean the same as thermodynamic equilibrium , because the latter requires that there be equilibrium of all kinds, not only ..., the system is not in thermal equilibrium. For thermodynamics, it is considered that convection ... a state of thermal equilibrium, in which its temperature will be uniform throughout, but not necessarily a state of thermodynamic equilibrium, if there is some structural barrier that can prevent some possible processes in the system from reaching equilibrium. An isolated system can change its temperature ... equilibrium until its temperature is uniform. A very tall isolating vessel initially containing ... temperature though not of uniform pressure or density, and is then in thermal equilibrium and even of thermodynamic equilibrium. ref Gibbs, J.W. 1876 1878 . On the equilibrium of heterogeneous ..., and during the increase, the system is not in thermal equilibrium but eventually the system will settle ..., and then isolated, the ice can melt during the melting, the system is not in thermal equilibrium ..., by conductive or radiative pathways, they will be in thermal equilibrium with each other just when ... pathway, conductive or radiative, is available, and this flow will continue until thermal equilibrium ... & Co., London, pages 1 2. http www.onread.com reader 145819 ref One form of thermal equilibrium is Radiative equilibrium Radiative exchange equilibrium radiative exchange equilibrium . Two bodies ... , Planck mostly writes of thermal equilibrium for example, on page 2 , and only sparingly of thermodynamical equilibrium for example, on page 121 . ref name Planck 1922 1927 Planck, M ... from the context of his text that he may mean that thermal equilibrium is a good concept for cases ... more details
For the economic concept, see Dynamic equilibrium economics A dynamic equilibrium exists once a reversible ... state . In thermodynamics a closed system is in thermodynamic equilibrium when reactions occur ... occur, sometimes vigorously, but to such an extent that changes in composition cannot be observed. Equilibrium ... will increase until equilibrium is reached. At that point a molecule of CO sub 2 sub may leave the liquid phase, but then another molecule of CO sub 2 sub will pass from the gas to the liquid. At equilibrium the rate of loss of CO sub 2 sub is equal to the rate of gain. In this case, the equilibrium ... phases to be equal to each other. Equality of chemical potential defines chemical equilibrium . Other constants for dynamic equilibrium involving phase changes include partition coefficient and solubility product . Raoult s law defines the equilibrium vapor pressure of an ideal solution . Dynamic ... Eqm CH sub 3 sub CO sub 2 sub sup sup H sup sup At equilibrium the concentration chemistry concentration ... acid molecules when an acetate ion accepts a proton. Equilibrium is attained when the sum of chemical potentials of the species on the left hand side of the equilibrium expression is equal to the sum ... equilibrium publisher Cambridge University Press location Cambridge, U.K. year 1981 edition 4th. isbn 0 521 28150 4 ref Relationship between equilibrium and rate constants In a simple reaction ... k f k b math . Since the concentrations do not change thereafter, they are, by equilibrium chemistry definition , equilibrium concentrations. Now, the equilibrium constant for the reaction is defined as math K frac B eq A eq math It follows that the equilibrium constant is numerically equal to the quotient ... states ref Atkins, Section 22.4 ref that, for a general reaction, the overall equilibrium constant ... left frac k f k b right 2 dots math See also Equilibrium chemistry Static equilibrium Chemical equilibrium Radiative equilibrium References cite book title Physical Chemistry last Atkins first P.W. ... more details
In nuclear physics , secular equilibrium is a situation in which the quantity of a radioactive isotope remains constant because its production rate due, e.g., to decay of a parent isotope is equal to its decay rate. Secular equilibrium in radioactive decay Image with unknown copyright status removed Image Secular Equilibrium.GIF Secular equilibrium can only occur in a radioactive decay chain if the half life of the daughter radionuclide B is much shorter than the half life of the parent radionuclide A. In such a situation, the decay rate of A, and hence the production rate of B, is approximately constant, because the half life of A is very long compared to the timescales being considered. The quantity of radionuclide B builds up until the number of B atoms decaying per unit time becomes equal to the number being produced per unit time the quantity of radionuclide B then reaches a constant, equilibrium value. Assuming the initial concentration of radionuclide B is zero, full equilibrium usually takes several half lives of radionuclide B to establish. The quantity of radionuclide B when secular equilibrium is reached is determined by the quantity of its parent A and the half lives of the two radionuclide. This can be seen from the time rate of change of the number of atoms of radionuclide B math frac dN B dt lambda A N A lambda B N B math , where sub A sub and sub B sub are the exponential decay decay constants of radionuclide A and B, related to their half lives t sub 1 2 sub by math lambda ln 2 t 1 2 math , and N sub A sub and N sub B sub are the number of atoms of A and B at a given time. Secular equilibrium occurs when math dN B dt 0 math , or math N B frac lambda A lambda ... equilibrium is only approximate N sub A sub decays away according to math N A t N A 0 e lambda A t math , and the equilibrium quantity of radionuclide B declines in turn. For times short compared to the half ... Transient equilibrium References http www.iupac.org goldbook S05532.pdf IUPAC definition http www.epa.gov ... more details
refimprove date February 2011 Reflective equilibrium is a state of Balance metaphysics balance or coherence among a set of beliefs arrived at by a process of deliberative mutual adjustment among general principles and particular judgment s. Although he did not use the term, philosopher Nelson Goodman introduced the method of reflective equilibrium as an approach to theory of justification justifying the principles of inductive logic. The term reflective equilibrium was coined by John Rawls and popularized in his A Theory of Justice as a method for arriving at the content of the principles of justice. Rawls argues that human beings have a sense of justice which is both a source of moral judgment and moral motivation. In Rawls s theory, we begin with considered judgments that arise from the sense ... until they are in equilibrium, which is to say that they are stable, not in conflict, and provide consistent practical guidance. Rawls argues that a set of moral beliefs in ideal reflective equilibrium ... of the method of reflective equilibrium may be useful. Suppose Zachary believes in the general principle ... that witches really should be killed . Whatever the decision, he has moved toward reflective equilibrium. Reflective equilibrium serves an important justificatory function within Rawls s political ... of Norman Daniels and T. M. Scanlon Thomas Scanlon , is that the method of reflective equilibrium ... equilibrium. On this view, the method of reflective equilibrium serves its justificatory ... regard them as authoritative and reliably compliant with them. The method of reflective equilibrium ... to principles we judge morally sound. The method of reflective equilibrium serves the aim of defining ... up take by the members of society. The method of reflective equilibrium provides a way of settling on principles that will achieve the kind of up take necessary for stability. Reflective equilibrium ... Consistency Dialectics Enantiodromia External links sep entry reflective equilibrium Reflective Equilibrium ... more details
The Schlenk equilibrium is a chemical equilibrium named after its discoverer Wilhelm Schlenk taking place in solutions of Grignard reagent s. ref cite journal author W. Schlenk W. Schlenk, Jr. journal Chem. Ber. volume 62 issue 4 pages 920 year 1929 doi 10.1002 cber.19290620422 title ber die Konstitution der Grignardschen Magnesiumverbindungen ref ref Grignard Reagents New Developments H. G. Richey Editor ISBN 0 471 99908 3 ref 2 RMgX math overrightarrow leftarrow math MgX sub 2 sub MgR sub 2 sub The process described is an equilibrium between two equivalents of an alkyl or aryl magnesium halide on the left of the equation and on the right side, one equivalent of the di alkyl or di aryl magnesium compound and magnesium halide salt . Organomagnesium halides in solution also form Dimer chemistry dimers and higher oligomer s, especially at high concentration. Alkyl magnesium chlorides in ether are present as dimers. ref J. March Advanced Organic Chemistry 3rd Ed. ISBN 0471854727 ref The position of the equilibrium is influenced by solvent, temperature, and the nature of the various substituents. It is known that magnesium center in Grignard reagents typically coordinates two molecules of ether such as diethyl ether or tetrahydrofuran THF . Thus they are more precisely described as having the formula RMgXL sub 2 sub where L an ether. In the presence of monoethers, the equilibrium typically favors the alkyl or arylmagnesium halide. Addition of dioxane to such solutions, however, leads to selective precipitation of dihalide MgX sub 2 sub dioxane , driving the equilibrium completely to the right side of the equation. ref cite journal author Richard A. Andersen, Geoffrey Wilkinson title Bis Trimethylsilyl Methyl Magnesium journal Inorg. Synth. doi 10.1002 9780470132500.ch61 year 1979 volume 19 pages 262 ref The dialkylmagnesium compounds are potent alkylating agents and are popular in the synthesis of organometallic compounds. References reflist Category organometallic chemistry ... more details
Multiple issues wikify January 2012 refimprove January 2009 orphan January 2009 In economics, the equilibrium wage is the wage rate that produces neither an excess supply of workers nor an excess demand for workers and labor market. ref cite book last Sullivan first arthur authorlink Arthur O Sullivan coauthors Steven M. Sheffrin title Economics Principles in action publisher Pearson Prentice Hall year 2003 location Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 pages 220 url http www.pearsonschool.com index.cfm?locator PSZ3R9&PMDbSiteId 2781&PMDbSolutionId 6724&PMDbCategoryId &PMDbProgramId 12881&level 4 doi id isbn 0 13 063085 3 ref See economic equilibrium . See also Portal Business and economics References Reflist DEFAULTSORT Equilibrium Wage Category Labor economics econ term stub fi Tasapainopalkka ... more details
Infobox Album See Wikipedia WikiProject Albums Name Forest of Equilibrium Type studio Artist Cathedral band Cathedral Cover CathedralForestOfEquilibrium.jpg Released December 6, 1991 UK br February 11, 1992 US Recorded 1991 at Workshop Studios, Redditch , England Genre Doom metal , Death doom Length 54 09 Label Relativity Records Relativity Earache Records Earache Producer PBL, assisted by Lee Dorrian and Gary Jennings Last album This album Forest of Equilibrium br 1991 Next album The Ethereal Mirror br 1993 Album ratings rev1 Allmusic rev1score Rating 2.5 5 ref Allmusic class album id r3464 pure url yes Allmusic review ref Automatically generated by DASHBot Forest of Equilibrium is the debut album of the UK British doom metal band Cathedral band Cathedral . It was released in 1991 on Earache Records . It is considered a classic of its genre. ref True Doom, 2006, p. 52. ref The album is included in Piero Scaruffi s classification of the best metal albums of all time at number 12, just after Rage Against the Machine s Rage Against the Machine album self titled and before Voivod band Voivod s Nothingface album Nothingface . ref name Piero Scaruffi cite web last Scaruffi first Piero title Best heavy metal albums of all time url http www.scaruffi.com music metal.html accessdate March 20th, 2011 ref Track listing Picture Of Beauty & Innocence Intro Commiserating The Celebration 11 16 Garry Jennings Lee Dorrian Ebony Tears 7 46 Jennings Dorrian Serpent Eve 7 40 Jennings Griffiths Soul Sacrifice 2 54 Jennings Griffiths A Funeral Request Ethereal Architect 9 17 Lehan Griffiths David Park Barnitz Equilibrium 6 08 Jennings Dorrian Reaching Happiness, Touching Pain 9 08 Jennings Dorrian Credits Lee Dorrian Singing Vocals , sound effects Garry Jennings Guitar s Adam Lehan Guitars, Steel ... Category Cathedral albums Category Earache Records albums de Forest of Equilibrium it Forest of Equilibrium pl Forest of Equilibrium pt Forest of Equilibrium fi Forest of Equilibrium ... more details
In nuclear physics , transient equilibrium is a situation in which equilibrium is reached by a parent daughter radioactive isotope pair where the half life of the daughter is shorter than the half life of the parent. Contrary to Secular equilibrium , the half life of the daughter is not negligible compare to parent s half life. An example of this is the Molybdenum 99 generator producing Technetium 99 for nuclear medicine diagnostic procedures. Such a generator is sometimes called cow because the daughter product, in this case Technetium 99 is milked at regular intervals. ref http web.ead.anl.gov marssim acrogloss dsp wordpopup.cfm?word id 504 transient equilibrium Bot generated title ref Transient equilibrium occurs after four half lives, on average. Activity in transient equilibrium The activity of the daughter is given by the Bateman equation math A d A P 0 frac lambda d lambda d lambda P times e lambda Pt e lambda dt times BR A d 0 e lambda dt math , where math A P math and math A d math are the activity of the parent and daughter, respectively. math T P math and math T d math are the half lives of the parent and daughter, respectively, and BR is the branching ratio . In transient equilibrium, the Bateman equation cannot be simplified by assuming the daughter s half life is negligible compared to the parent s half life. The ratio of daughter to parent activity is given by math frac A d A P frac T P T P T d times BR math . Time of maximum daughter activity In transient equilibrium, the daughter activity increases and eventually reaches a maximum value that can exceed the parent activity. The time of maximum activity is given by math t max frac 1.44 times T P T d T P T d times ln T P T d math , where math T P math and math T d math are the half lives of the parent and daughter, respectively. In the case of math 99m Tc math math 99 Mo math generator, the time of maximum ... publisher A Saunders Title 3 edition year 2003 isbn 072168341X ref See also Secular equilibrium References ... more details
Infobox film name Equilibrium image Equilibriumposter.jpg caption Theatrical release poster director ... million gross 5,359,645 Equilibrium , also known as Cubic fact date April 2012 , is a 2002 American ... serving the very regime he is to help overthrow. Plot Equilibrium is set in the futuristic and dystopia ... www.scifi.com scifiwire art film.html?2002 11 27 10.00.film title Equilibrium Not 451 Redux accessdate ... clear of the most likely path of enemy bullets. The Gun Kata shown in Equilibrium is a hybrid mix ... commentarya7.htm title Equilibrium DVD Commentary Kurt Wimmer Chapter 7 publisher ... title tt0238380 trivia title Equilibrium 2002 Trivia publisher Imdb.com date accessdate 2009 03 29 ... government offices. File U Bahn Berlin Reichstag 1.jpg thumb right The Hall of Enforcement in Equilibrium ... equilibrium3.html title Equilibrium Production Notes publisher compleatseanbean.com accessdate 03 December 200 ref Equilibrium s locations include ref name CSBC1 Olympic Stadium Berlin ... up in the gadgetry of science fiction, he explains. In fact, there s no technology in Equilibrium that doesn ... being Equilibrium is a reheated mishmash of other sci fi movies. ref cite web url http www.rottentomatoes.com m equilibrium title Equilibrium Rotten Tomatoes accessdate 2008 01 08 publisher ... reviews. ref cite web url http www.metacritic.com movie equilibrium title Equilibrium 2002 Reviews accessdate 2008 01 08 publisher Metacritic ref The New York Times dismissed Equilibrium for having ... review?res 9C01E1DA123BF935A35751C1A9649C8B63 title Equilibrium 2002 Film Review work NY Times accessdate ..., awarded the film 3 stars out of 4, noting that Equilibrium would be a mindless action picture, except ...?AID 20021206 REVIEWS 212060303 1023 work Chicago Sun Times title Equilibrium ref Explaining the apparent ... kwinterviewdwtext.htm title Dreamwatch Interview Kurt Wimmer Achieving Equilibrium accessdate ... movies ?id equilibrium.htm title Box Office Mojo Equilibrium accessdate 19 September 2010 ref ... more details
Sedimentation equilibrium in a solution or suspension of different particles, such as molecule s, exists when the rate of transport of each material in any one direction due to sedimentation equals the rate of transport in the opposite direction due to diffusion . Sedimentation is due to an external force, such as gravity or centrifugal force . It was discovered by Jean Baptiste Perrin for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1926. Application in determining molecular mass Sedimentation equilibrium can be used to determine molecular mass . It forms the basis for an analytical ultracentrifugation method for measuring molecular masses, such as those of protein s, in solution. External links http www.ap lab.com sedimentation equilibrium.htm http rasmb.bbri.org Reversible Associations in Structural and Molecular Biology Category Biochemistry methods Biochem stub fr quilibre de s dimentation no Sediment r likevekt sr ... more details
Unreferenced date December 2009 In Keynesian economics , underemployment equilibrium refers to a situation with a persistent shortfall relative to full employment and potential output so that unemployment is higher than at the NAIRU or the natural rate of unemployment natural rate of unemployment . This situation is not seen as solvable via laissez faire polices of letting nature take its course price adjustment . Instead, fiscal policy i.e., deficit spending or monetary policy is needed to prime the pump or jump start the economy to abolish unemployment Cyclical unemployment cyclical unemployment and the GDP gap. DEFAULTSORT Underemployment Equilibrium Category Keynesian economics de Gleichgewicht bei Unterbesch ftigung ... more details
Infobox equilibrium name Correlated equilibrium supersetof Nash equilibrium discoverer Robert Aumann example Chicken game Chicken In game theory , a correlated equilibrium is a solution concept that is more general than the well known Nash equilibrium . It was first discussed by mathematician Robert Aumann 1974 . The idea is that each player chooses his her action according to his her observation of the value of the same public signal. A strategy assigns an action to every possible observation a player can make. If no player would want to deviate from the recommended strategy assuming the others don t deviate , the distribution is called a correlated equilibrium. Formal definition An math N math player strategic game math displaystyle N,A i,u i math is characterized by an action set math displaystyle A i math and utility function math u i math for each player math i math . When player math ... math s information partition. Then math displaystyle Omega, pi ,P i math is a correlated equilibrium ... i math is a correlated equilibrium if no player can improve his expected utility via a strategy modification ... equilibrium where each player Dares with probability 1 3. Now consider a third party or some natural ... equilibrium. Interestingly, the expected payoff for this equilibrium is 7 1 3 2 1 3 6 1 3 5 which is higher than the expected payoff of the mixed strategy Nash equilibrium. Learning correlated equilibria ... than are Nash equilibria . This can be captured by the fact that computing a correlated equilibrium only requires solving a linear program whereas solving a Nash equilibrium requires finding its fixed point completely. ref Paul W. Goldberg and Christos H. Papadimitriou, Reducibility Among Equilibrium ... up converging to a correlated equilibrium. ref Foster, Dean P and Rakesh V. Vohra, Calibrated Learning and Correlated Equilibrium Games and Economic Behaviour 1996 ref References Reflist Aumann ... 1 67 96. Aumann, Robert 1987 Correlated Equilibrium as an Expression of Bayesian Rationality. Econometrica ... more details
Equilibrium isotope fractionation is the partial separation of isotopes between two or more substances in chemical equilibrium . Equilibrium fractionation is strongest at low temperatures, and along with kinetic isotope effect kinetic isotope effects forms the basis of the most widely used isotopic paleothermometer paleothermometers or proxy climate climate proxies deuterium D H and oxygen isotope ratio cycle sup 18 sup O sup 16 sup O records from ice cores , and sup 18 sup O sup 16 sup O records from calcium carbonate. It is thus important for the construction of geologic temperature record geologic temperature records . ref name Urey 1947 cite journal author H. C. Urey year 1947 journal J. Chem. Soc. title The Thermodynamic Properties of Isotopic Substances pages 562 581 doi 10.1039 JR9470000562 ref Isotopic fractionations attributed to equilibrium processes have been observed in many elements, from hydrogen deuterium D H to uranium Isotopes of uranium sup 238 sup U sup 235 sup U . In general, the light elements especially hydrogen , boron , carbon , nitrogen , oxygen and sulfur are most susceptible to fractionation, and their isotopes tend to be separated to a greater degree than heavier elements. Most equilibrium fractionations are thought to result from the reduction in vibrational ... X is concentrated in substance BX. math alpha math is closely related to the equilibrium constant K ... of equilibrium isotope fractionation is the concentration of heavy isotopes of oxygen in liquid ... 16 O g math At 20 C, the equilibrium fractionation factor for this reaction is math alpha frac 18 O 16 O Liquid 18 O 16 O Vapor 1.0098 math Equilibrium fractionation is a type of mass dependent isotope fractionation, while mass independent fractionation is usually assumed to be a non equilibrium process. For non equilibrium reactions, isotopic effects are better described by the GEBIK and GEBIF ... Chacko T., Cole D.R., and Horita J. 2001 Equilibrium oxygen, hydrogen and carbon isotope fractionation ... more details
Refimprove date March 2009 In a chemical reaction , chemical equilibrium is the state in which both reactants ... of the reactant and product. This process is called dynamic equilibrium . ref name aj ref GoldBookRef title chemical equilibrium file C01023 ref Introduction File Burette.svg thumb right 100px A burette , an apparatus for carrying out e.g. acid base titration , is an important part of equilibrium chemistry. The concept of chemical equilibrium was developed after Berthollet 1803 found ... at equilibrium, the reaction rate rates of the forward and backward reverse reactions are equal. In the following chemical equation with arrows pointing both ways to indicate equilibrium, A and B are reactant ... A beta B rightleftharpoons sigma S tau T math The equilibrium position of a reaction is said to lie far to the right if, at equilibrium, nearly all the reactants are consumed. Conversely the equilibrium ... sub sub and k sub sub are rate constant s. Since at equilibrium forward and backward rates are equal ... of the rate constants is also a constant, now known as an equilibrium constant . math K frac k k ... conditions necessary condition for chemical equilibrium, though it is not Necessary and sufficient conditions sufficient to explain why equilibrium occurs. Despite the failure of this derivation, the equilibrium constant for a reaction is indeed a constant, independent of the activities of the various ... way and will not have an effect on the equilibrium constant. The catalyst will speed up both reactions thereby increasing the speed at which equilibrium is reached. ref name aj Atkins, Peter W and Jones ... equilibrium concentrations are constant in time reactions do occur at the molecular level. For example .... This is an example of dynamic equilibrium . Equilibria, like the rest of thermodynamics, are statistical ... of the behavior of an equilibrium system when changes to its reaction conditions occur. If a dynamic equilibrium is disturbed by changing the conditions, the position of equilibrium moves to partially ... more details
Economics sidebar Partial equilibrium is a condition of economic equilibrium which takes into consideration only a part of the market, ceteris paribus , to attain equilibrium. As defined by George Stigler , A partial equilibrium is one which is based on only a restricted range of data, a standard example ... model is a partial equilibrium model where the clearance on the market of some specific good economics ... of consumer s are constant. This makes analysis much simpler than in a general equilibrium model ... demand. It is a powerfully simple technique that allows one to study economic equilibriumequilibrium ... which, while seemingly precise, do not effectively model real world economic phenomena. Partial equilibrium analysis examines the effects of policy action in creating equilibrium only in that particular ... in constricted markets. L on Walras first formalized the idea of a one period economic equilibrium ... equilibrium discusses, when does an individual, a firm , an industry , factors of production attain their equilibrium points A consumer is in a state of equilibrium when he achieves maximum aggregate ... and preferences, income, price and supply of the commodity etc. Producers equilibrium occurs when he maximizes his net profit subject to a given set of economic situations. A firm s equilibrium point ... Cost and in long run LMC MR AR LAC at its minimum are the conditions of equilibrium. ref cite book ... profit and has no intension to leave the industry . 4. Equilibrium for an industry happens when there is normal ..., i.e. land, Labor economics labor , capital and entrepreneurs are in equilibrium when they are paid ... name Suranovic In partial equilibrium the welfare effects on consumers who purchase and the producers ... their intersection is the equilibrium point. Hence the consumer surplus for first consumer ... of the three rectangles. ref name Suranovic Difference between Partial and General Equilibrium class wikitable collapsible Partial Equilibrium General Equilibrium Developed by Alfred Marshall ... more details
Orphan date February 2009 Image Equilibrium,by ReissGames,Inc.JPG 250px right thumb Equilibrium in solved State Image Equilibrium sTwoTypeOfPieces.JPG 250px right thumb Equilibrium s Pieces Equilibrium , also known as Equi librium is an interlocking puzzle in the shape of a sphere. Copyrighted in 1974 by Reiss Games, Inc., it consists of 6 closed arch pieces, 5 of which have pegs on their straight center. The two pegs block the other pieces from being shifted back or forth, only the sixth piece is different having only one peg and two notches. These notches are above and below where the peg would be located on the other pieces, allowing only this notched piece to be moved at first. When it is moved so the notch fits over another piece s peg, the two pegged piece can be moved. Once a two peg piece has been slid to the side, the notched piece can be moved to its second notch and lifted off. Once the notch piece is removed, all the others become loose and the puzzle usually crumbles into its remaining pieces. The challenge is to put it back together. Equilibrium was sold in a cardboard box, with a solution sheet enclosed. It looks tranquilizing till you take it... apart, that is. But getting this well designed sphere and you back together again won t be easy. ref Equilibrium s packaging ref The secret in putting it back together involves not only holding the pieces in such a way that all three angles are supported so they can hold the others, but also knowing how to place the Key or notched piece to lock it all together. A later colored version named Sphere was released by Net Block ref http home.comcast.net l whiting attbi JUST THE BURRS.html ref . Solution Saving the notched piece until last, set two pieces so they are facing away from each other, such as db, then place another between them at a 45 degree angle in a U shape. This will make the bottom of the sphere and serve as a platform for the other pieces. Rest the pieces on the middle finger to give them a firm base ... more details
The Wanzlick equilibrium is a chemical equilibrium between a persistent carbene relatively stable carbene compound and its Dimer chemistry dimer . History Original conjecture In 1960, Hans Werner Wanzlick H. W. Wanzlick and E. Schikora proposed that carbene s derived from dihydroimidazol 2 ylidene were generated by vacuum pyrolysis of 2 trichloromethyl dihydroimidazole derivatives, with the loss of chloroform . ref name Wanzlick1 Hans Werner Wanzlick and E. Schikora 1960 , Ein neuer Zugang zur Carben Chemie . Angewandte Chemie , volume 72 issue 14, pages 494 . doi 10.1002 ange.19600721409 ref ref name Wanzlick2 H. W. Wanzlick and E. Schikora 1960 , Ein nucleophiles Carben . Chemische Berichte ... and Schikora believed that once prepared these carbenes existed in an unfavourable equilibrium ... Chemistry issue 2 ref Conjecture challenged Wanzlick s hypothesis of a carbene dimer equilibrium ... dimer equilibrium did not exist for these dihydroimidazol 2 ylidene derivatives. Lemal ref name Lemal1 ... supporting the Wanzlick equilibrium. ref Michael K. Denk, Ken Hatanoa and Martin Maa 1999 , Nucleophilic carbenes and the wanzlick equilibrium A reinvestigation Tetrahedron Letters Volume 40, Issue ... equilibrium Tetrahedron Letters Volume 41, Issue 5, Pages 599 602 DOI 10.1016 S0040 4039 99 ... of a Diaminocarbene Tetraaminoethylene Equilibrium . J. Am. Chem. Soc. , volume 121 issue 45, pages ... Van, Roland Fr hlich 2000 , Evidence for an Equilibrium between an N heterocyclic Carbene and Its Dimer ... journal 69502282 abstract Abstract ref both investigated an equilibrium between ... in 2000 that the Wanzlick equilibrium between a tetraaminoethylene and its corresponding carbene did exist after all., ref Volker P. W. B hm, Wolfgang A. Herrmann 2000 , The Wanzlick Equilibrium Angewandte ... ref File Wanzlick equilibrium lemal Hahn 1999.svg center frame A dibenzotetraazafulvalene derivative and its carbene in equilibrium Further analysis More recent work by Alder and others ref name ... more details
Solubility equilibrium is a type of dynamic equilibrium . It exists when a chemical compound in the solid state is in chemical equilibrium with a solution of that compound. The solid may dissolve unchanged ... or alkali. Each type of equilibrium is characterized by a temperature dependent equilibrium constant .... Definitions A solubility equilibrium exists when a chemical compound in the solid state is in chemical equilibrium with a solution of that compound. The equilibrium is an example of dynamic equilibrium ... another. When equilibrium is established, the solution is said to be saturated. The concentration of the solute ... . A supersaturated solution may be induced to come to equilibrium by the addition .... This is characteristic of salts . The equilibrium constant is known in this case as a solubility ... s or weak base s in aqueous media of varying pH . In each case an equilibrium constant can be specified as a quotient of activity chemistry activities . This equilibrium constant is dimensionless as activity is a dimensionless quantity. However, use of activities is very inconvenient, so the equilibrium ... of concentrations. See equilibrium chemistry Equilibrium constant for details. Moreover, the concentration of solvent is usually taken to be constant and so is also subsumed into the equilibrium constant. For these reasons, the constant for a solubility equilibrium has dimensions related to the scale ... enters a true equilibrium. Particle size effect The thermodynamic solubility constant is defined for large ... strength of the solution and hence on activity coefficient s, so that the equilibrium constant, expressed ... water than cool water. It occurs because solubility constants, like other types of equilibrium constants ... as an equilibrium between the substance in its solid and dissolved forms. For example, when ... C 12 H 22 O 11 aq math . An equilibrium expression for this reaction can be written, as for any ... example, the equilibrium expression is math K ominus frac left mbox Ca 2 aq right left mbox SO ... more details
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