of Wolbachia within an insect cell. br small Credit Public Library of Science Scott O Neill small name Wolbachia regnum Bacterium Bacteria phylum Proteobacteria classis Alphaproteobacteria ordo Rickettsiales familia Rickettsiaceae genus WolbachiaWolbachia is a genus of bacterium bacteria which infects ... L last3 Windsor first3 D. W. year 1995 title Distribution of Wolbachia in neotropical arthropods ... species are estimated to be potential hosts. ref Cite journal title The Discovery of Wolbachia in Arthropods ... U. last2 Rao journal Issues in Infectious Diseases year 2007 volume 5 issue Wolbachia A Bug s Life in another ... pipiens , a species of mosquito . Hertig formally described the genus in 1936 as Wolbachia pipientis ... when the sperm of Wolbachia infected males fertilized infection free eggs. ref Cite journal author1 ... 5313 ref In 1990, Richard Stouthamer of the University of California, Riverside discovered that Wolbachia ..., Wolbachia is notable for significantly altering the reproductive capabilities of its hosts. These bacteria ... and ovaries of their hosts. Wolbachia are known to cause four different phenotypes Male killing ..., G., Jiggins, F. M., Graf von Der Schulenburg, J. H., Bertrand, D. et al 1999 . Male killing Wolbachia .... Some scientists have suggested that parthenogenesis may always be attributable to the effects of Wolbachia ... which has evolved to procreate without males with the help of Wolbachia . Males are rare in this tiny species of insect, possibly because many have been killed by that very same strain of Wolbachia . ref ... the inability of Wolbachia infected males to successfully reproduce with uninfected females or females infected with another Wolbachia Strain biology strain . Several species are so dependent on Wolbachia that they are unable to reproduce effectively without the bacteria in their bodies ... is 1 112 ai 97174198 format Reprint accessdate 15 November 2008 ref Wolbachia are present in mature ... first2 J r me last2 Moreau first3 Pierre last3 Juchault year 1999 month October title Wolbachia infection ... more details
like Wolbachia , which infect a wide range of insect species. As the reproductive incompatibility ... of Wolbachia infection and cytoplasmic incompatibility in Culex mosquitos when they found that eggs were killed when the sperm of Wolbachia infected males fertilized infection free eggs. ref .... br Bidirectional CI Mating of males infected with Wolbachia strain I and females infected by Wolbachia strain II and vice versa results in CI. CI occurs when a Wolbachia infected male mates with a female that is infected by another Wolbachia strain bidirectional CI or is uninfected unidirectional ... female is compatible with any infected or uninfected male of the same Wolbachia strain. On the other ... is infected by a CI inducing strain of Wolbachia that is non existent in its mate, it is an incompatible cross. ref name Werren Hosts can be cured from Wolbachia infection by antibiotic use. In diploid ... . Paternal chromosome segregation during the first mitotic division determines Wolbachia induced cytoplasmic ... to the CI inducing manipulation. The first occurs inside the Wolbachia infected male during spermatogenesis and is called modification. Because Wolbachia are absent from mature sperm and appear to be excluded .... ref Snook, R, Cleland, S, Wolfner, M, Karr T 2000 . Offsetting Effects of Wolbachia ... 167 ref The second event, called rescue, takes place inside the fertilized egg where Wolbachia presence prevents CI from occurring. As long as the Wolbachia strains in egg and sperm cells correspond ... envelope breakdown and mitosis in Wolbachia induced cytoplasmic incompability . Science 296 1124 1126 ... article B6T9H 3VYTMKV 4 2 b22cf619a1a4f955659c763db4619218. ref The exact mechanisms of how Wolbachia ..., F, Orsi, GA, Loppin, B, Sullivan, W 2009 . Wolbachia Mediated Cytoplasmic Incompatibility Is Associated ... caused by CI only occur much later in development ref Duron, O, Weill, M 2006 . Wolbachia ... by Werren, ref name Werren Werren, J 1997 . Biology of Wolbachia , Annual Review of Entomology 42 587 ... more details
Taxobox color lightgrey name Anaplasmataceae regnum Bacterium Bacteria phylum Proteobacteria classis Alpha Proteobacteria ordo Rickettsiales familia Anaplasmataceae subdivision ranks Genera subdivision Anaplasma br Ehrlichia br Neorickettsia br Wolbachia Anaplasmataceae is a Proteobacteria family ref cite book last Garrity first George title Bergey s Manual of Systematic Bacteriology publisher Springer year 2005 isbn 0 387 24145 0 ref that includes genera Anaplasma , Ehrlichia , Neorickettsia and Wolbachia . Rickettsialesphylogeny References references div class references small div Category Proteobacteria Category Rickettsiales Rickettsiales Proteobacteria stub de Anaplasmataceae es Anaplasmataceae pt Anaplasmataceae ... more details
italic title Taxobox name Acanthocheilonema viteae regnum Animal ia phylum Nematoda classis Secernentea ordo Spirurida familia Onchocercidae genus Acanthocheilonema species A. viteae binomial Acanthocheilonema viteae Description Acanthocheilonema viteae is a parasitism parasitic nematode . Acanthocheilonema viteae , previously Dipetalonema viteae , is a rodent filarial worm that is often used as a model to study human filarial infections. Filarial nematodes are the causative agents of filariases , tropical diseases that afflict about 160 million people worldwide. Currently, there are neither safe and efficient drugs nor vaccines available to eliminate or prevent these infections, which makes the development of new control strategies a priority Tachu et al., 2008 . Acanthocheilonema viteae is an animal parasite . These filarial nematodes and their animal hosts are often used as models for studies on the biology of human infection. Acanthocheilonema viteae shares considerable antigenic homology with the human filarial worm Onchocerca volvulus this allows for rapid analysis of larval development which is essential to efforts in vaccine development Eisenbeiss et al., 1991 . Research Acanthocheilonema viteae is one of the few filaroids that do not bear Wolbachia bacteria. Infection with Wolbachia is essential to the continued good health and reproduction of their nematode hosts. Molecular studies suggest that Acanthocheilonema viteae either lost their symbionts before they became essential or diverged from other filaroids before Wolbachia acquisition Schmidt and Roberts, 2009 . External links http www.ias.ac.in currsci apr25 articles11.htm 1. Eisenbeiss, Wilhelm F., Apfel, H. and T. F. Meyer. Recovery, Distribution, and Development of Acanthocheilonema viteae Third and Early Fourth Stage Larvae in Adult Jirds. The Journal of Parasitology. 1991 77 1 580 586 2. Tachu, Babila, Smitha Pillai, Richard Lucius, and Thomas Pogonka. Essential Role of Chitinase in the Development ... more details
Italic title Taxobox name Porcellionides pruinosus regnum Animal ia phylum Arthropod a subphylum Crustacean Crustacea classis Malacostraca ordo Isopoda familia Porcellionidae genus Porcellionides species P. pruinosus binomial Porcellionides pruinosus binomial authority Johann Friedrich von Brandt Brandt , 1833 ref name ITIS ITIS id 93273 taxon Porcellionides pruinosus accessdate October 25, 2010 ref Porcellionides pruinosus is a Cosmopolitan distribution cosmopolitan woodlouse that is suspected to consist of very closely related species . Ten subspecies are recognised. ref name ITIS The species carries Wolbachia endosymbionts , which is an alpha proteobacteria alpha proteobacterium that is known to modify the reproduction of their crustacean host biology hosts by inducing cytoplasmic incompatibility or Feminization biology feminisation . ref cite journal journal Heredity journal Heredity year 2001 volume 87 pages 428 434 doi 10.1046 j.1365 2540.2001.00920.x title Wolbachia diversity in the Porcellionides pruinosus complex of species Crustacea Oniscidea evidence for host dependent patterns of infection author Alice Michel Salzat, Richard Cordaux & Didier Bouchon url http www.nature.com hdy journal v87 n4 full 6889200a.html issue 4 ref See also List of woodlice of the British Isles References reflist Category Porcellionidae Category Animals described in 1833 Category Woodlice of Europe isopod stub nl Porcellionides pruinosus ... more details
refimprove type bacteria auto yes date April 2011 Taxobox color lightgrey name Rickettsiaceae regnum Bacterium Bacteria phylum Proteobacteria classis Alpha Proteobacteria ordo Rickettsiales familia Rickettsiaceae familia authority Pinkerton, 1936 subdivision ranks Genera subdivision Rickettsia br Orientia br Wolbachia The Rickettsiaceae are a Family biology family of bacterium bacteria , including most notably the genus Rickettsia . Most human pathogens are in genus Rickettsia. They spend part of their life cycle in the bodies of arthropods such as ticks or lice , and are then transmitted to humans or other mammals by the bite of the arthropod. It is a Gram negative bacteria , very sensitive to environmental exposure, and thus is an obligate intracellular infection. Rickettsia rickettsii is considered the prototypical infectious organism in the group. Similar arthropod borne Rickettsial infections exist in other areas of the world. Rickettsialesphylogeny References Reflist Category Rickettsiales Proteobacteria stub de Rickettsiaceae es Rickettsiaceae fr Rickettsiaceae pt Rickettsiaceae ru uk Rickettsiaceae ... more details
Taxobox name Trichogramma regnum Animal ia phylum Arthropod a classis Insect a ordo Hymenoptera subordo Apocrita superfamilia Chalcidoidea familia Trichogrammatidae genus Trichogramma subdivision ranks Species subdivision 230 , see text The wasps of genus Trichogramma , commonly known as stingless wasps , are some of the most widely studied agents of biological pest control biological control in the field of entomology. Trichogramma wasps are tiny Hymenoptera n insects, measuring 1 millimeter in length or less, that parasitize the eggs of many types of agricultural pest insects. They are easy to rear and release in fields suffering from pest outbreaks. There are over 230 species of Trichogramma , and most are so similar, advanced expertise is required to tell them apart. Genetic studies are ongoing. The wasps are currently used to control at least 28 species of insect pest, including the Helicoverpa zea cotton bollworm , codling moth , and European corn borer . Female wasps inject their own eggs into the egg of the pest, and her larvae consume the embryo and other contents of the egg. See Wolbachia for additional details. External links http insects.tamu.edu extension bulletins b 6071.html trichogramma Biocontrol oriented Trichogramma Manual http www.dpi.qld.gov.au cropresearch 16030.html Trichogramma Article Category Chalcidoidea Category Biological pest control agents es Trichogramma fr Trichogramme kk pl Kruszynek owady ru ... more details
Infobox musical artist See Wikipedia WikiProject Musicians name Head Hits Conrete image caption image size background group or band alias origin Winnipeg , Manitoba genre Grindcore years active 1999&ndash 2004 label G7 Welcoming Committee Records G7 Welcoming Committee associated acts Swallowing Shit , Putrescence, Prague, Kursk, Wolbachia, Big Trouble in Little China, L viv website http headhitsconcrete.n3.net Official Site current members Mike Alexander br Craig Boychuk br Darcy Bunio br Brad Skibinsky past members Jeff Byckal br Justin Ludwar notable instruments Head Hits Concrete is a political grindcore Musical band band that formed in April 1999 in Winnipeg, Manitoba , Canada . Between 1999 and 2004 the band recorded a cassette demo, 3 EPs and split records with My Minds Mine and Bodies Lay Broken. Head Hits Concrete went on extended hiatus in 2004, ref http www.aversionline.com reviews 403 Aversion Online The Kingdom Come Undone review ref ref http www.uptownmag.com archive music 04oct14.htm Uptown Magazine Grinding to a halt Long serving Winnipeg metal band packs it in ref but reformed for a show with Brutal Truth in 2010. The band has toured briefly since that date, and is currently writing new material towards a split LP with Mudlark for a release in 2011. Prior to going on hiatus, Head Hits Concrete played numerous shows in Winnipeg, including annual extreme music festival Arsonfest, and embarked on one American and one Canadian tour with Fuck the Facts . The band collectively decided to pursue other projects after returning from their western Canadian tour in 2004. Those projects include instrumentalists Prague Bunio, Boychuk , Putrescence Alexander , Kursk currently defunct Skibinsky , Wolbachia Skibinsky , Big Trouble In Little China Bunio, original guitarist Byckal and L viv Boychuk . Aside from Kursk, all of these projects are currently active in some capacity. Discography 2000 Mitakuye Owaysin demo 2001 Eponym ous 7 Sounds of Betrayal Records 2001 S ... more details
Thelytoky comes from the Greek language Greek thely , meaning female , and tokos , meaning birth . Thelytokous parthenogenesis is a type of parthenogenesis in which females are produced from unfertilized eggs. It is rare in the animal animal kingdom and has only been reported in about 1,500 species . ref Cite journal doi 10.1080 11250008409439455 issn 0373 4137 volume 51 issue 1 2 pages 1 23 last White first Michael J.D. title Chromosomal Mechanisms in Animal Reproduction journal Bolletino di zoologia year 1984 format free full text ref It is more common in invertebrates , like arthropods , but can also occur in vertebrates , like some Cnemidophorus whiptail lizards . Thelytoky can occur by a number of different mechanisms each of which has a different impact on the level of zygosity homozygosity . It can be induced in Hymenoptera by the bacteria Wolbachia and Cardinium ref Cite journal issn 0018 067X volume 94 issue 4 pages 402 407 last Jeong first G coauthors R Stouthamer title Genetics of female functional virginity in the Parthenogenesis Wolbachia infected parasitoid wasp Telenomus nawai Hymenoptera Scelionidae journal Heredity accessdate 2012 01 12 date 2004 11 03 url http dx.doi.org 10.1038 sj.hdy.6800617 ref , and has also been described in several groups of Hymenoptera, including Cynipidae , Tenthredinidae , Aphelinidae , Ichneumonidae , Apidae and Formicidae . ref Cite book publisher CRC Press isbn 9780849359811 last Suomalainen first Esko coauthors Anssi Saura, Juhani Lokki title Cytology and evolution in parthenogenesis date 1987 08 31 ref Thelytoky in ants, bees, and wasps Hymenoptera ant s, bee s, and wasp s usually reproduce by arrhenotoky arrhenotokous parthenogenesis . They have the haplodiploid sex determination system , and usually unfertilized eggs develop into haploid males, and fertilized eggs develop into diploid females. In thelytoky, however, female worker bee worker s or queen insect queen s are produced by laying worker bee s when diploidy ... more details
wiktionary AWOL AWOL is an acronym for absent without leave or absent without official leave . AWOL may also refer to tocright Film Lionheart 1990 film Lionheart 1990 film , known in the UK as A.W.O.L. Absent Without Leave , starring Jean Claude Van Damme A.W.O.L. 1972 film A.W.O.L. 1972 film , directed by Herb Freed A.W.O.L. 2006 film A.W.O.L. 2006 film , starring David Morse and John C. McGinley Absent Without Leave 1992 film Absent Without Leave 1992 film , starring Craig McLachlan Music A.W.O.L., The Prodigy song A.W.O.L. album A.W.O.L. album , by rapper musician AZ A.W.O.L. song A.W.O.L. song , of the album Paul s Boutique, of the band Beastie Boys Awolnation , an American indie rock band A.W.O.L. , a song featured on album Impact Is Imminent from Thrash Metal band Exodus A.W.O.L. , song off the album One for the Kids , of the band Yellowcard AWOL , Jethro Tull song from their 1999 album J Tull Dot Com AWOL , The Soledads song from their debut EP. The same song is an entry in the KBP Pop Music Festival semi finals. People Mohammed Awol born 1978 , Ethiopian athlete Amery Smith a.k.a AWOL born 1964 , drummer musician Other uses All Walks Of Life , A.W.O.L. CUSTOM TATTOOING LLC premier custom tattoo studio located in Muskegon, Michigan Alcohol without liquid , a play on the military term American way of life , lifestyle of U.S. residents the Anti Wolbachia Consortium, headed by the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine A Way of Life , a 2004 retreat for breast cancer survivors disambiguation fr AWOL ... more details
Taxobox image Protocalliphora.azurea2. .lindsey.jpg image caption Protocalliphora azurea regnum Animal ia phylum Arthropod a classis Insect a ordo Fly Diptera familia Calliphoridae subfamilia Calliphorinae genus Protocalliphora genus authority Hough, 1899 subdivision ranks Species subdivision Protocalliphora or bird blowflies are a blow fly genus containing many species which are obligate parasites of birds. ref Curtis Williams Sabrosky Sabrosky, C. W. , Bennett G. F., Whitworth T. L. 1989. Bird blow flies Protocalliphora Diptera Calliphoridae in North America with notes on the Palearctic species. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington. ref The larvae suck the blood of nestlings and are found in the nests of birds. The genus is affected by Wolbachia bacteria and it has been suggested that horizontal gene transfer may have led to the difficulty in separating species of Protocalliphora through DNA fingerprinting, with several species possessing identical mtDNA Cyclooxygenase Cytochrome oxidase I sequences. ref T.L. Whitworth, R.D. Dawson, H. Magalon, E. Baudry 2007. DNA barcoding cannot reliably identify species of the blowfly genus Protocalliphora Diptera Calliphoridae . Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences 274 1619 1731 1739 http www.journals.royalsoc.ac.uk content tu21831k825kv655 ref They sometimes feed inside the nostrils of nestling birds and destroy the tissue at the base leading to reduced growth of the upper mandible and the young growing with shovel beaks . ref H. Elliott McClure 1962 Ten Years and 10,000 Birds Concluded . Bird Banding 33 2 69 84 ref References reflist External links commonscat inline Protocalliphora Category Calliphoridae Diptera stub fr Protocalliphora vi Protocalliphora ... more details
Distinguish heterozygosity Heterogamy has a number of biological definitions In reproductive biology, heterogamy is the alternation of differently organized generations, applied to the alternation between parthenogenesis parthenogenetic and a sexual reproduction sexual generation. ref Cite book publisher Walter de Gruyter isbn 9783110106619 last Scott first Thomas title Concise encyclopedia biology year 1996 ref ref Cite journal issn 0165 5752 volume 52 issue 3 pages 219 225 last Poinar first George O, Jr coauthors Trevor A Jackson, Nigel L Bell, Mohd B asri Wahid title Elaeolenchus parthenonema n. g., n. sp. Nematoda Sphaerularioidea Anandranematidae n. fam. parasitic in the palm pollinating weevil Elaeidobius kamerunicus Faust, with a phylogenetic synopsis of the Sphaerularioidea Lubbock, 1861 journal Systematic Parasitology accessdate 2011 12 20 date 2002 07 url http www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov pubmed 12075153 ref This type of heterogamy occurs for example in some aphid s. In reproductive biology, heterogamy or heterogamous is often used as a synonym of heterogametic , meaning the presence of two unlike chromosomes in a sex. ref name Lokki Cite journal volume 79 issue 3 pages 513 525 last Lokki first Juhani coauthors Esko Suomalainen, Anssi Saura, Pekka Lankinen title Genetic Polymorphism and Evolution in Parthenogenetic Animals. Ii. Diploid and Polyploid Solenobia Triquetrella lepidoptera Psychidae journal Genetics accessdate 2011 12 20 date 1975 03 01 url http www.genetics.org content 79 3 513.abstract ref ref Cite journal doi 10.1098 rspb.2004.2769 issn 0962 8452 volume 271 issue 1549 pages 1751 1755 last Hiroki first Masato coauthors Yohsuke Tagami, Kazuki Miura, Yoshiomi Kato title Multiple infection with Wolbachia inducing different reproductive manipulations in the butterfly Eurema hecabe. journal Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences date 2004 08 22 . ref For example, XY males and ZW females are called the heterogamous sex. In cell biology, hete ... more details
or bacteria Wolbachia , regardless of nuclear sex determining factors. This occurs in Amphipoda ..., including Wolbachia . Male sterility In some cases anther tissue male gametophyte is killed by mitochondria ... males are produced asexually, Wolbachia and Cardinium can induce duplication of the chromosome ... produced by sperm of infected males and ova of non infected females can be killed by Wolbachia or Cardinium ... more details
Taxobox image Nasoniavit.jpg image caption Nasonia vitripennis regnum Animal ia phylum Arthropod a classis Insect a ordo Hymenoptera familia Pteromalidae subfamilia Pteromalinae genus Nasonia genus authority William Harris Ashmead Ashmead , 1904 synonyms Mormoniella small Ashmead, 1904 small subdivision ranks Species subdivision Nasonia giraulti br Nasonia longicornis br Nasonia vitripennis Nasonia are a genus of small Pteromalidae pteromalid parasitoid wasp s that sting and lay eggs in the pupae of various flies. The fly species that Nasonia usually parasitize are primarily Blowfly blowflies and fleshflies, making Nasonia a useful tool for biocontrol of these pest flies. The wasps are small, pinhead sized, and also referred to as jewel wasps . The wasp genus has acquired genes from the Pox virus and from Wolbachia in less than 100,000 years. ref name sfgate http www.sfgate.com cgi bin article.cgi?f c a 2010 01 14 BAPE1BH5V9.DTL Tiny wasp with potential for big impact , SFGate, David Perlman, Chronicle Science Editor. ref There are currently four described species in the Nasonia genus, N. vitripennis , N. longicornis , N. giraulti , and N. oneida . N. vitripennis is found worldwide N. giraulti is found in eastern North America and N. longicornis is found in western North America. Genomics In 2010 the Nasonia genome was announced after work over four years by an international consortium of research groups financed by the National Human Genome Research Institute . ref name sfgate ref Citation last The Nasonia Genome Working Group first author link last2 first2 author2 link publication date date 15 January year 2010 title Functional and Evolutionary Insights from the Genomes of Three Parasitoid Nasonia Species edition volume 327 series 5963 publication place place publisher pages 343 348 page id isbn doi 10.1126 science.1178028 oclc url http www.sciencemag.org cgi content full 327 5963 343 accessdate 2010 01 15 issue 5963 ref It is expected that the discovery will lead ... more details
RhoV or Chp or Wrch2 is a small 21 kDa signaling G protein more specifically a GTPase , and is a member of the Rho family of GTPases . Chp was identified in 1998 as a GTPase interacting with the p21 activated kinase PAK2 ref name Aronheim cite journal author Aronheim A, Broder YC, Cohen A, Fritsch A, Belisle B and Abo A. year 1998 title Chp, a homologue of the GTPase Cdc42Hs, activates the JNK pathway and is implicated in reorganizing the actin cytoskeleton journal Curr Biol volume 8 issue 20 pages 1125 8 issn 0960 9822 doi 10.1016 S0960 9822 98 70468 3 pmid 9778532 ref . RhoV Chp delineates with Wrch1 RhoU Wrch a Rho subclass related to Rac GTPase Rac and CDC42 Cdc42 , which emerged in early multicellular organisms during evolution ref name Boureux cite journal author Boureux A, Vignal E, Faure S, Fort P. year 2007 title Variability and Expression of Ankyrin Domain Genes in Wolbachia Variants Infecting the Mosquito Culex pipiens journal Mol Biol Evol volume 24 issue 1 pages 203 16 issn 0021 9193 pmid 17449622 doi 10.1128 JB.00142 07 pmc 1913362 ref . RhoV Chp depends on palmitoylation rather than prenylation for association with plasma and intracellular membranes ref name Chenette cite journal author Chenette EJ, Mitin NY and Der CJ. year 2006 title Multiple Sequence Elements Facilitate Chp Rho GTPase Subcellular Location, Membrane Association, and Transforming Activity journal Mol Biol Cell volume 17 issue 7 pages 3108 21 issn 1059 1524 doi 10.1091 mbc.E05 09 0896 pmid 16641371 pmc 1483044 ref . In Xenopus embryos, RhoV is encoded by a canonical Wnt response gene and is induced in the developing neural crest at specification. RhoV activity cooperates with the SNAI1 Snai1 Snail transcription factor for the subsequent induction of the pro invasive transcription factors SNAI2 Snai2 Slug , Sox9 or Twist transcription factor Twist . ref name Guemar cite journal author Guemar L, de Santa Barbara P, Vignal E,Maurel B, Fort P, Faure S. year 2007 title The small GTPase Rho ... more details
Hill topping is a mate location behaviour seen in many insect s including butterfly butterflies , dragonfly dragonflies , wasp s, ref Alcock, J. 1985. Hilltopping behaviour in the wasp Pseudomasaris maculifrons Fox Hymenoptera Masaridae . J. Kansas. Entomol. Soc. 58 162 166. ref beetle s ref Schaedla, W. H. 2005. Hilltopping on termitaries by the Indochinese tiger beetle, Heptodonta analis Cincindelidae . Insect Science 12 2 151 ref and fly flies . ref Alcock, J. 1989. The mating system of Mydas ventralis Diptera Mydidae . Psyche 96 167 176 http psyche.entclub.org 96 96 167.html ref Males of many butterfly species may be found flying up to and staying on a hilltop for days on end if necessary. Females, desirous of mating, fly up the hill. Males dash around the top, competing for the best part of the area usually the very top as the male with the best territory at the top of the hill would have the best chance of mating with the occasional female, who knows the top male must be strong and thus genetically fit. Many authors consider this as a form of Lek mating arena lekking behaviour . ref Alcock, J. 1987. Leks and hilltopping in insects. J. Nat. Hist.21 319 328. ref Many butterfly species including Papilionidae swallowtails , Nymphalidae nymphalids , Riodinidae metal marks and Lycaenidae lycaenids are known to hill top. In some Acraea butterflies, widespread infection by Wolbachia results in a rarity of males and in these species the females widely engage in hill topping behaviour. ref Jiggins, Francis M. 2002. Widespread hilltopping in Acraea butter ies and the origin of sex role reversed swarming in Acraea encedon and A. encedana Afr. J. Ecol. 40 228 231 ref Female butterflies at hill topping sites are predominantly of unmated individuals. ref Shields, O. 1967 Hilltopping. J. Res. Lep. 6 69 178 ref Studies have shown that even slight elevation differences on flat terrain can trigger hill topping behaviour. ref Baughman, John F., Dennis D. Murphy 1988. What Constit ... more details
name John, David T. 2006 Since the discovery of the importance of Wolbachia in the lifecycle of B. malayi ... reduction of Wolbachia and microfilariae in onchocerciasis and W. bancrofti infected patients. These antibiotics .... ref Citation last Rao first R. U. title Endosymbiotic Wolbachia of parasitic filarial nematodes ... Wolbachia metabolism. These potential new targets for drugs or vaccines should provide new ... of Brugia malayi with Wolbachia The relationship between the bacteria Wolbachia and B. malayi is not fully ... filariasis, believe that Wolbachia may aid in embryogenesis of the worm, be responsible for potent ... by University of Bonn in Ghana, doxycycline was effective in depleting Wolbachia from W. bancrofti .... Targeting wolbachia, doxycycline reduces pathology of lymphatic filariasis . 18, September 2006. http ... more details
is determined by infection. Bacterium Bacteria of the genus Wolbachia alter their sexuality some species consist entirely of ZZ individuals, with sex determined by the presence of Wolbachia . Secondary ... more details
of different bacteria Wolbachia , ref Hurst, G., Jiggins, F. M., Graf von Der Schulenburg, J. H., Bertrand, D. et al 1999 . Male killing Wolbachia in two species of insects. Proc R Soc B, 266 735 740 ... more details
extent. ref name bingham This species has been found to be parasitized by multiple strains of Wolbachia ... infection with Wolbachia inducing different reproductive manipulations in the butterfly Eurema hecabe ... more details
by Wolbachia bacteria is known to exclusively kill male specimens. ref name GrossL2006Conflict ref cite journal author E. A. Dyson, M. K. Kamath & G. D. Hurst year 2002 title Wolbachia infection ... On the Samoan Islands of Upolu and Savai i , a parasite probably Wolbachia had been killing the male ... more details
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