|
- The article deals with its use in Literary Arabic which slightly differs from varieties of Arabic.
Al- is not a permanent component of words, as shown here with (or ), the Arabic for Bahrain. (, also transliterated as el- as pronounced in varieties of Arabic) is the definite article in the Arabic language; a particle ( arf) whose function is to render the noun on which it is prefixed definite. For example, the word kit b 'book' can be made definite by prefixing it with al-, resulting in al-kit b 'the book'. Consequently, al- is typically translated as the in English. Unlike most other particles in Arabic, al- is always prefixed to another word and it never stands alone. Consequently, most dictionaries will not list it as a separate word, and it is almost invariably ignored in collation. By the same token, al- is not a permanent component of the word to which it is prefixed. It is added and removed to toggle between the definiteness and indefiniteness of the word. As a particle, al- does not inflect at all not for gender, plurality, grammatical case, etc.
Overview To put al- into perspective, there are many ways in which Arabic words can be made definite. These include the use of personal pronouns like "me", the use of proper nouns like "Saudi Arabia", demonstrative pronouns like "this man", relative pronouns like "the man who ...", vocation like "O man", possession like "my man", and of course the definite article like "the man".[1] Apart from possession, prefixing a noun with al- is the weakest form of definiteness.[2] That is, saying "the man" does not define the man being referred to as clearly as saying "this man", for example. Arabic does not have an indefinite article like the English a or an. A noun, adjective, adverb, etc. is considered indefinite if is not otherwise definite.[3] Etymology The etymology of al- is the study of how it developed and how it changed over time. There are several major opinions in regards to the origins of the Arabic definite article. Al- comes from Arabic l According to Jacob Barth, who was lecturer in Hebrew at the Hildesheimer Rabbinical Seminary, al- comes directly from the Arabic negating particle, l .[4] He conjectures that l became al- through a process of metathesis. That is to say, the l m and the alif swapped positions. It is noteworthy that the negation denoted by l and the definiteness denoted by al- are in stark contrast to each other. Barth also asserts that l could have resulted in al- through a process of syncope. That is to say, the alif in l and the vowel over the l m were dropped resulting in a suk n over the l m and a volatile or elidable hamza was added to compensate. David Testen argues against both of these explanations. He says that there is no corroboratory evidence for either metathesis or syncope. Al- comes from Arabic la There is a theory that al- comes from the same root as the asseverative-cum-precative particle, la-; this is the la- used at the beginning of nominal sentences for emphasis.[5] Al- comes from a proto-Semitic particle A popular theory is that al- comes from the same proto-Semitic source as the Hebrew definite article ha-.[6] This theory is based primarily on the fact that the two share many similarities. Both particles are prefixed to nouns and they both geminate with certain following letters.[7] Moreover, both particles are not prefixed to non-final nouns in a genitival construction.[8] And finally, both are prefixed to relative clauses.[9] According to David Testen, many north- and south-west Semitic languages have particles that bear similarities to al-.[10] With this fact, he posits that al- has a proto-Semitic antecedent. There are three major theories regarding the form of the proto-Semitic particle that is the putative antecedent of al-:[11] David Testen and Jacob Weingreen state that / hal is the correct antecedent. Supporters of this theory sometimes cite the Arabic word for 'this', h dh , which, when combined with a definite phrase, has been known to become shortened from h dh al-bayt (this house) to hal-bayt. Some grammarians argue against the citation of hal-bayt, stating that it is merely a shortening of the demonstrative pronoun. Weingreen also states that the original form of the Hebrew ha- was, in fact, hal.[12] Hebrew, then, dropped the final l to achieve ha-, while Arabic softened the h- to a hamza, resulting in al-.[11] Phonology The phonology of al- is the study of its constituent letters and vowels, and of its pronunciation in different dialects and in different lexical circumstances. The "hamza" in al- A classical (and largely one sided) debate in regards to al- is whether the hamza is volatile or not. The majority opinion is that of Sibawayh (d. ca. 797) who considers the hamza volatile.[13] In his opinion, neither is the hamza part of al-, nor does it contribute to the definiteness of the following word. Khal l, Ibn Keis n, and Akhfash, on the other hand, consider the hamza to be non-volatile.[14] There is a further debate amongst the proponents of this second theory. Some consider the hamza non-volatile and they assert that it contributes to the definiteness of the following word. Others assert that the hamza contributes to the definiteness of the following word, but it is still volatile.[15] In his defence, Khal l argues that when a word prefixed with al- is preceded by the interrogative hamza, the two hamzas mix.[16] For example, when the word al- na (now) is prefixed with it, the result is l- na. Clearly, the hamza of al- does not drop in this case, even though there is no further purpose for it. Khal l further argues that the only reason the hamza in al- is ever dropped is not because it is volatile, but due to excessive usage. When asked why the l m in al- wasn t simply given a vowel if it is so heavily used and needs to be easier to pronounce, followers of Khal l give the following response: Had the l m been given a fat a, it would have been confused with the asseverative-cum-precative particle.[17] Had it been given a kasra, it would have been confused with the genitival particle.[18] And it could not have been given a amma in fear of the following vowel being a kasra or amma (which would result in awkward pronunciations as in *lu-ibil or *lu- unuq).[19] Despite the myriad of proofs for the argument, in most classical grammatical camps and in modern Arabic, the opinion of Sibawayh is often taken as an axiomatic fact.[20] There are many proofs and counter-proofs, but the overarching argument in favour of this opinion is as follows. The l m in al- is the only l m particle in the language with a suk n (to avoid confusion, as mentioned). Hence it requires a volatile hamza.[21] Moreover, al- is a particle and Arabic particles do not drop letters (without losing their meanings or connotations). Yet we see the hamza in al- dropping all the time. Therefore it must be volatile, otherwise al- would lose its ability to render the following word definite[19]. Consequently, it turns out that the hamza in al- is considered the only volatile hamza in the language that has a fat a vowel. The l m in al- In very early Semitic languages, definiteness was achieved through gemination of the first letter in a word.[22] For example, the word kit b would be made definite by ak-kit b. An additional benefit of this construction was to connote "determination".[23] The l m in the Arabic al- was thus a result of a dissimilation process.[24] In Arabic, this gemination occurs when the word to which al- is prefixed begins with one of the fourteen sun letters.[25] Twelve of these letters (including l m) are originally designed to geminate. d and sh n have been included due to their similarities in pronunciation with l m and , respectively.[26] For example, the word al-rajul 'the man' is actually pronounced "ar-rajul". Notice that the l m is written but not pronounced. In more modern dialects, the sun letters have been extended to include the velars g m and k f.[27] A final point to note is that the ancient tribe of Ban Ham r replace the l m in al- with m m. The Prophet of Islam is recorded to have uttered the following words in that dialect:[28] The vowels in al- Regardless of whether the hamza in al- is volatile or not, it is read with a fat a when beginning speech with the definite article. For example, if one vocalizes the word 'the house' after a pause, it will be pronounced "al-bayt". In fact, the hamza in al- is largely considered to be the only volatile hamza that has a fat a vowel. If, however, al- is vocalized in the middle of speech, the hamza will be dropped in pronunciation. As a result, the vowel preceding the definite article will be linked to the l m of al-. For example, (vocalized without any pauses) is pronounced "b bu l-bayt", is pronounced "b ba l-bayt", and is pronounced "b bi l-bayt". If the word onto which al- is prefixed starts with a hamza, then the vowel from that hamza may transfer to the l m of al-, after which the hamza will drop in pronunciation.[29] See for an example. If this hamza is volatile, this option becomes an obligation. An example is in the phrase bi sa al-ismu. This phrase is read as "bi sa lismu" (Qur'an 49:11). This is a rule relating to hamza, and not in direct relation to al-. Moreover, it is a rare occurrence and is almost never applied in spoken varieties of modern or classical Arabic. Separating al- from its host word Al- has been recorded to separate from its host word as in the following couplet:[30] The al- in has been recorded both with and without the alif. It has been stripped from its host word due to the meter of the couplet. It has then been repeated in the second half of the couplet reattached to its host.[31] This is a very rare occurrence and is only recorded in poetry. Lexicology Definiteness The primary and most profuse function of al- is to render the following word definite. This is known as . This function is of two types:[32] - : when the word being referred to has already been mentioned. An example is found in the word messenger in "We had sent to Pharaoh a messenger. But Pharaoh disobeyed the messenger..." (Qur'an 73:15-6).
- : when the word being referred to is understood by the listener. An example is found in the word battle in "The battle is getting worse; I think we should retreat."
There is also a special type of known as "the al- for . The noun on which the al- is prefixed, in this case, is never explicitly mentioned but the listener knows what is being referred to.[33] For example, the word al-kit b (the book) may actually refer to the classical book of Arabic grammar written by Sibawayh. Whenever grammarians talk about "the book", this is what they mean and it is always understood without explanation. Class nouns One of the functions of al- is to render the noun onto which it is prefixed a class noun.[34] For example, the word al-asad can mean the lion , referring to a specific lion, or the lion in the sense the lion is a dangerous animal . Notice that the meaning connoted by this function of al- is indefinite, which is in stark contrast with the primary function of the definite article. Because of this meaning, the noun following al- will be grammatically indefinite and one may, for example, modify the noun without the use of a relative pronoun.[35] An example of this is seen in the following couplet of poetry: Encompassing a genus Al- may be used to encompass all the individuals of a genus.[36] For example, al-asad can be used to mean all lions . This function is called . One is encouraged to use caution when employing this form of al- as it may be confused with its other meanings. In order for al- to be in this capacity, it is necessary that it be interchangeable with the word kull 'all'.[34] Some classical grammarians assert that this kull may be figurative, in which case al-, in this capacity, would be a form of exaggeration.[37] The most well known use of al- in this meaning occurs twice in the Qur'anic verse 1:1, (all praise is due to Allah, lord of all the worlds). Indicating presence Al- is often used in words to indicate the presence of something.[38] For example, al-yawm means this day i.e. today . In modern Arabic, this function is largely idiomatic and does not carry over to new words. At the beginning of names Al- may be prefixed to names that are derived from Arabic nouns. This function is known as . The purpose of doing this is to point toward the meaning of the one named.[39] For example, the name Ad l (meaning 'just') may be read "al- Ad l" to allude to the fact that Ad l is a just person. In modern Arabic, however, this type of al- is largely idiomatic. That is to say, names traditionally prefixed with al- are kept as such and names without al- are also kept as such; the connotation of this al- is ignored. When it comes to alphabetic ordering, some sources will list names according to the al- while others will ignore it. Extra Al- is sometimes prefixed to words without giving any grammatical benefit. This may occur in poetry, in which case the purpose may be to maintain metre, rhythm, or rhyme. It may also occur elsewhere to give a rhetorical benefit. For example, the al- attached to the relative pronoun al-ladh (that/which/etc) is considered to be extra, because relative pronouns are already definite and there is no use for the al-.[40] Al- is perpetually and necessarily attached to this word in most Arabic dialects, because without it the word would read ladh , which sounds awkward.[41] Thus its purpose is not a lexical or grammatical one, but a rhetorical one. In the above example, the extra al- is necessary. There are other cases where it is extra but not necessary. An example is in the following phrase:[42] The word awwal (first) is considered l (a type of object in grammar) in the above phrase. This type of object is typically indefinite according to most classical and modern grammarians.[43] So the al- attached to it is unnecessarily extra. Miscellaneous - Jam l Sh mi asserts that there is a type of al- that connotes the essence of something[38]. For example, "And we made from water every living thing ..." (Qur'an 21:30) can be translated as "And we made from the essence of water (i.e., from the compound H2O) every living thing ..."
- Sh mi also cites a usage of al- as an interrogative particle.[44] For example, al fa alta' (did you do it?). Notice that the al- stands alone and un-prefixed here.
Grammar At the beginning of particles ( arf) and verbs (fi l) Al- is a particle ( arf)[45] in the Arabic language. Like most (but not all) particles, it is not prefixed to other particles. That is because particles are never in need of any of the lexical meanings or grammatical inflections provided by al-. Similarly, al- is not prefixed to verbs. However, it has been seen on verbs in poetry, as in the following couplets[46] by Dhu al-Kharq al-Tahawi ( ): Several opinions exist to explain this aberrant al-. The following is a precis of different Arabic scholars' views as given in Khizanat al-Adab. One view is that al- is a relative pronoun here, similar to alladh ( ), allat ( ), etc. in Arabic. This is the view of Ibn Hisham and Al-Akhfash al-Akbar.[47] This opinion is in harmony with the form of the general relative pronoun (alli, illi, al) in most Arabic dialects nowadays. If this view is correct, this aberrant al- does not follow the sun and moon letters rule. - (The Cairene Arabic-Language Academy) have stated in their dictionary (al-Mu jam ul-Wa t) that The Academy approved the use of the prefix al- as a relative pronoun with imperfective verbs.[48] It's mainly used to denote ability, in-ability or possibility (eg. -able in English). Eg. al-yu kal :The edible, al-yur :The see-able; and with the particle -l - for in-ability: al-l -yu kal :The non-edible, al-l -silk :The wireless, etc...
When al- occurs in places where we would not normally expect it, it is considered extra as far as grammar and lexicology are concerned. This is the view of al-Kis .[47] Al- is used by poets to complete the meter of the verse under poetic license. This is the view of Ibn Malik, the author of the Alfiyyah; it is rejected by the author of the Khiz nat al-Adab.[47] At the beginning of nouns (ism) - The terms noun and ism have been used synonymously in this section
Because nouns require the functions provided by al- (namely definiteness), al- is prefixed to them. Ism, as defined in classical Arabic grammar, includes all parts of speech save particles and verbs: nouns, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, etc. As a general rule, al- may be prefixed to any ism, regardless of gender, plurality, grammatical case, etc. However, this rule has some pathological caveats. That is, there are some nouns that al- may never be prefixed to, and there are others that al- must always be prefixed to. Prohibited prefixation Nouns that do not inflect for definiteness The definite article al- is not typically prefixed to nouns that do not inflect for definiteness. Examples include the interrogative man 'who'. Already definite nouns The definite article al- is not typically prefixed to nouns that are already definite.[49] Examples include personal pronouns, relative pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, nouns already prefixed with al-, etc. Exceptions to this include the prefixation of al- to the relative pronoun (see ) and to proper nouns (see ). As a concrete example, al- has been recorded at the beginning of a demonstrative pronoun, as in the following poetic verse:[50] The genitival construction (i fa) Al- is not prefixed to non-final nouns in a genitival construction (I fa).[51] For example, in shaw ri al-mad na (the city s streets), the word is a non-final noun in the genitival construction. Hence, it cannot be prefixed with al- (it is already definite by virtue of the construction). Exceptions to this include genitival constructions where the first noun is a participle and the second noun is its object.[52] This can be done if one of the following conditions is met.[53] - the first noun is dual; e.g.
- the first noun is sound masculine plural; e.g.
- the second noun also has al-; e.g.
- the second noun is the first noun of another genitival construction, and the second noun in this other construction has al-; e.g.
- the second noun is suffixed to a pronoun which refers to a noun that has al-; e.g.
Al- has also been seen in poetic verses prefixed to non-final nouns in a genitival construction. An example is in the following couplet[44]: Furthermore, the grammatical school of Kufa allows al- on the first noun in a genitival construction if it is a number.[54] For example, the phrase thal that aql m (three pens) may be read al-thal that aql m . Vocation According to the Basra school of classical grammar, al- does not typically follow the particles of vocation.[55] For example, one will not say y ar-rajul (O the man). The proponents of the Basra camp give two exceptions. - the word Allah ; one may say y Allah (O God) with or without pronouncing the hamza in Allah .[56]
- direct quotation; one may say, for example, y al- asan (O al-Hasan) to someone named al-Hasan.[57]
However, the Kufa camp of classical grammar, as well as many modern grammarians, allow al- to be prefixed to the object of vocation almost unconditionally.[58] An example is given in the following couplet of poetry:[59] Under this scheme, if the object of vocation is a single word and it is feminine, the particle of vocation will be followed by the particle ayyatuh . And if it is masculine, it will be followed by the particle ayyuh .[60] Nunation (tanw n) According to the classical grammarians Farr and Kas , the overarching purpose of nunation is to differentiate between nouns and verbs.[61] Thus a noun is given nunation so that it won t be confused with a verb; for example the name would have been confused with a quatralateral verb had it not been for nunation. Additionally, we know that al- prefixed to verbs. Therefore, when al- is prefixed to a noun, there is no longer any danger of the noun being confused with a verb, and so the nunation is no longer needed. Hence, no noun has both al- and nunation simultaneously.[62] However, there are some types of nunation whose purpose is not to differentiate between nouns and verbs. Such types include (a type of nunation converted from an alif at the end of poetic couplets) and (a type of nunation used to maintain the metre of a poem). An example of the first type in conjunction with al- is found in the following couplet of poetry:[63] And an example of the second type in conjunction with al- is found in the verse below:[64] Necessary prefixation There are some nouns that are invariably seen with al-. Examples include the relative pronoun al-ladh (that/which/etc).[40]. Al- on numbers Al- may be prefixed to the first part of a number between 11 and 19.[65] For example, a ada ashar (eleven) may be read as "al-a ada ashar". In the case of a compound number (21-29, 31-39, ..., 91-99), al- may be prefixed to both parts. For example, w id wa- ishr n (twenty-one) may be read as "al-w id wa-al- ishr n".[66] Al- on participles When al- is prefixed to a participle, it acts like a relative pronoun.[67] For the purposes of this rule, participles include (the active participle), (the passive participle), (another participle in Arabic), etc. For example, . This is translated as I passed by the man who was riding his steed as opposed to something like I passed by the rider of his steed. Consequently, all the rules of Arabic relative pronouns and their clauses will apply here. It is widely accepted in Arabic grammar that a participle can carry tense. This tense, however, is typically limited to the present and future. But when we use the above construction, the past can be connoted by the participle as well due to the nature of relative clauses. For example, one may say (I passed by the man who was riding his steed yesterday). Some grammarians, however, say that it is only the past that can be connoted in this construction; the option of connoting the present and future is no longer available. And others say that no tense at all can be connoted.[68] Effects of al- on grammatical case Al- has very few contributions to the grammatical case of a noun. However, it is worth mentioning that it turns second-declension nouns (ghayr mun arif) into first declension nouns by allowing the kasra vowel.[69] Moreover, al- brings back the letter in an ism manq that is in the nominative or genitive case. Without the al-, the in such nouns is omitted and replaced by nunation. Allah Of special interest is the origins of the word Allah. While some scholars trace this word to a Hebrew origin (see El (God)), many modern scholars propose that it was derived from the word al-il h (the god). Proponents of this theory point towards the fact that the l m in al- is followed by a hamza. They say that the kasra from that hamza transferred to the l m and the hamza itself dropped (see ), resulting in alil h . Notice here that the volatile hamza does not drop from pronunciation even though it is no longer required. Then the two l ms geminated, producing "all h". Furthermore, the resulting l m was emphasized in pronunciation out of reverence for the name of God. And finally, the written word was given a special script and is written as follows: . See also Notes References External links ar: fa: id:Alif lam makrifah la:Al ms:Lam takrif ja: ru: sv:Al-
| 
Encyclopedia
top
